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Essay: Stereotype Activation & Application via Media Exposure

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  • Published: 1 April 2019*
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Abstract

The present essay sought to fill the present need for a critical review of literature which discusses the difference between stereotype activation and application, and the way in which each may be influenced by the media. The focus of the stereotypes discussed were on racial stereotypes, as the vast majority of the literature available has focused on stereotypes toward african-american demographics examining the stereotype of criminality. Furthermore, the strengths and weaknesses of the research methodologies were discussed and evaluated. It was concluded whilst the literature examined has shown almost indisputable links and trends between the the priming, activation, and application of stereotypes and media, the research is not without flaws and significant limitations. Uneven focus of the study directed around the same stereotype of the african-american criminal, previous research in the field prior to 2003 had not examined the roles of positive affective mediating factors, and whether the consequences of the exposure would vary due to the level of exposure received had not been assessed. Practical implications were found concerning public exposure to stereotypes portrayed in the media, negative or otherwise.

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Since the term itself first gained currency, stereotypes being: “…a fixed, over generalised belief about a particular group or class of people.” (Cardwell, 1996) have been associated with the mass media, with the media itself often claimed to strongly impact the stereotypes we hold about minorities. Because the testing of this premise may be more difficult than it may at first seem, there is a present need for the current literature available to be critically reviewed on just how media may influence or prime peoples’ stereotypes. The difference between stereotype activation (being the increased accessibility of a knowledge of specific social groups) (Krieglmeyer , Sherman 2012) and stereotype application (the utilisation of this knowledge in both judgement and perception of these groups) (Krieglmeyer , Sherman 2012) and the way in which each may be influenced by the media will be discussed in depth. The focus of the stereotypes discussed will be cast on racial stereotypes, as the vast majority of the literature available has focused stereotypes toward african american demographics, particularly examining the stereotype of criminality (Dixon, 2006a, 2006b, 2007; Johnson et al., 2008). Furthermore, the strengths and weaknesses of the research methodologies that have been utilised in this field will be discussed and evaluated, concluding with possible recommendations for future research and any practical implications of the findings.

In regards to the activation of the stereotypes via media itself the notion of “Media priming” has been foremost as a prevailing theoretical framework in the study of the effects of media on stereotypes (Roskos-Ewoldsen, Roskos-Ewoldsen, & Carpentier, 2002). This priming has been defined as an “effect of some preceding stimulus or event on how we react, broadly defined, to some subsequent stimulus” (Roskos-Ewoldsen, Roskos-Ewoldsen, & Carpentier, 2002). Essentially, the stimuli of the media source primes particular emotions and

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feelings, with in turn this evocation forming a role in formulating an impression about the issues or participants it targets (Roskos-Ewoldsen, Roskos-Ewoldsen, & Carpentier, 2002).

The relevance of stereotypes in the media is reflected in constant exposure of the public at large to media induced racial stereotypes being found to make them chronically accessible, especially for heavy media consumers. It has been shown that even the most subtle implicit cues such as both varying racial composition between African-American and Caucasian American of criminal suspects in the media (Dixon & Azocar, 2007), varying the skin tone and facial features of the offenders (Oliver, Jackson, Moses, & Dangerfield, 2004), and the racial and ethnic composition of offenders photographed in online publications (Abraham & Appiah, 2006) have been more than sufficient in the influencing of stereotype activation, leading almost inevitably into application. In addition to this it has been found that media exemplars of stereotypes have also been shown to activate reactions of affective feelings of pity and hostility (Johnson, Bushman, & Dovidio, 2008; Ramasubramanian & Oliver, 2007) in addition from the implicit attitudes discussed previously (Brown Givens & Monahan, 2005; Ramasubramanian, 2007; Ramasubramanian, 2011).

The robustness of the theoretical framework of priming is exemplified in a study by Dixon & Maddox (2005) examining emotional discomfort of participants post viewing a story which presented criminal perpetrators of various skin tones. The study documented that it was multiple exposure to news programming perpetrating the african-american criminal stereotype which in turn lead to the repeated cognitive activation of the particular stereotype. However the study also noted that “all participants found the perpetrator more memorable when the representation was a dark-skinned Black male" (Dixon & Maddox, 2005). This is

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important because it highlights that whilst it is an issue that the current literature focuses so heavily on primarily examining african-american stereotypes which could skew insights made by the research, the reality that this stereotype was so effective judging from the past research shows that it is one of the most prevalent stereotypes portrayed in the media, and as such was most affective in soliciting an activating response.

Whereas stereotype activation as mentioned previously is the increased accessibility of a knowledge of specific social groups, stereotype application can be defined as the utilisation of this knowledge in both judgement and perception of these groups (Krieglmeyer , Sherman 2012). Due to it’s inherent nature stereotype activation is dependent on the stereotype being activated, in contrast to stereotype activation which is in itself independent of application (Krieglmeyer , Sherman 2012). There are numerous issues which come into play in trying to examine it though. One issue is that the activation of the stereotype itself via media priming doesn’t necessarily result inevitably in the application of the stereotype in a subject’s judgements (Krieglmeyer , Sherman 2012). Individuals have indeed been shown to apply media stereotypes to a greater extent when resources are scarce to process judgement and the pressure of time management is higher (Krieglmeyer , Sherman 2012). In contrast, when individuals have been motivated to respond without any prejudice and they possess sufficient cognitive resources they have been seen to attempt to control the influence of the media stereotypes on their judgements (Krieglmeyer , Sherman, 2012). In a review of the empirical research and literature focusing on factors influencing the extent to which stereotype activation leads to application Kunda & Spencer, 2003 found evidence that previous research in the field had not examined the roles of positive affective factors, such as empathy. This insight in itself could prove to be a sever gap in knowledge in all of the

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literature regarding the application of stereotypes prior to that point, which should be critically assessed. This was addressed however by Johnson et al. 2009 taking a step into covering this gap in knowledge by examining the role of empathy in priming media stereotypes reducing support for social welfare policies.

Their findings indicated that an exposure to media depictions of stereotypical “Black criminals” reported a minimised level of empathy for other black persons but did not influence any empathetic responses towards white persons (Johnson et al. 2009). In the study this relationship between the priming of the stereotype by the media and the application of the stereotype was further exemplified by the priming leading to the application of the stereotypes when questioned in the subsequent judgements on public policy in regards to target african americans. Specifically, the study found that promiscuous and criminal stereotype activation via the media was revealed to reduce any subsequent empathetic responses towards african american individuals in need (Johnson et al. 2009). The findings are particularly relevant because previous research into empathic feelings were explicitly induced through the direct instruction to the participants, whereas in real world scenarios no direct instructions to feel any empathy towards an individual in need exist in these situations (Johnson et al. 2009). Whilst the study did take steps to fill the gap in literature and examined the roles of positive affective factors, such as empathy mentioned previously, there is still a gap of knowledge in the literature left unaddressed in whether the consequences of the exposure would vary due to the level of exposure received, being that those with heavier intakes of the media might show less empathy for negatively stereotyped individuals than infrequent viewers (Johnson et al. 2009).

Overall, whilst the literature examined has shown almost indisputable links and trends

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between the the priming, activation, and application of stereotypes and exposure to modern mass media the research is not without flaws and significant limitations. As discussed, whilst a number of stereotypes have been examined there is still an uneven focus of the study directed around the same stereotype of the african-american criminal whilst this focus could be shifted to other scenarios better assessing the robustness of theories in each. In addition, in the application of stereotypes prior to Kunda & Spencer in 2003 found evidence that previous research in the field had not examined the roles of positive affective factors, such as empathy which whilst being assessed by Johnson et al. 2009 still can be explored. While Johnson et al. (2009) seemingly addressed this, there is still a gap of knowledge in the literature left unaddressed in whether the consequences of the exposure would vary due to the level of exposure received, being that those with heavier intakes of the media might show less empathy for negatively stereotyped individuals than infrequent viewers. The findings and identification of gaps in knowledge and directions for future research have not only theoretical but practical implications concerning public exposure to stereotypes portrayed in the media, negative or otherwise. Through the studies identifying the connections and affects of media exposure to stereotypes we can better predict as a society to outcomes of when, and unto whom stereotypes may be activated, and in what scenarios these are most likely to be applied in our behaviour.

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