Literature review and theoretical framework
This section presents an over view of the theoretical framework focusing on the Brinkerhoff Evaluation Model and its suitability to this study. The literature review section focusses on the role of training provided to employees, advantages of training provided, strategies to facilitate the transfer of training and some factors which influence transfer of training.
The Brinkerhoff’s evaluation model
A number of training evaluation models exist such as: Kirkpatrick’s 4 Levels of Training and Evaluation Model, the Warr, Bird, and Rackhams’ Content, Input, Reaction and Outcome (CIRO) Model, Anthony Hamlin’s 5 Level Training Evaluation Model, Jack Phillip’s Return on Investment (ROI) Evaluation Model, Content, Input, Process and Product Evaluation (CIPP) Model. Kirkpatrick’s Model, according to Topno (2012), focuses on measuring four kinds of outcomes that should be a result of from a highly effective program. The CIRO model ultimate evaluation attempts to assess the impact of training on departmental or organizational performance in terms of overall results (Topno, 2012). According to Ahmad and Din (2009) Hamblin’s Five Levels of Evaluation Model attempts to obtain feedback on the effects of a training program, and to assess the value of training in light of that information. Phillip’s ROI Evaluation Model, translate the worth of training into monetary value. This model provides trainers a framework to view ROI both from human performance and business outcomes perspectives (Topno, 2012). Stufflebeam’s CIPP Model’s purpose of evaluation is to provide timely information in a systematic way for decision making and thus to improve the functioning of a program (Topno, 2012).
According to Esposito and Freda (2015), the choice of which evaluation model to use depends on many factors. Nevertheless, this study adopted the Brinkerhoff six stage evaluation model. Brinkerhoff’s training evaluation model is simple; it can be implemented in a short time frame and produce verifiable evidence of the effect of training or the lack of it. Credit is given in case when the impact is successful and weaknesses are pinpointed in the system then the feedback is directed to those who can address the problem. This model does not apply complex statistical analysis, but rather highlights factual accounts of the best results the program is capable of achieving (Brinkerhoff, 2005).
The Brinkerhoff model evolved from the Kirkpatrick’s model and he added two levels at the beginning of Kirkpatrick’s model (Otero, (1997).
Figure 1. (See attachment)
The six stages of the Brinkerhoff model borrowed from Otero (1997) are presented and discussed.
Stage 1: Evaluate needs and goals
According to Otero (1997) the data collected at this stage will forecast whether on job behaviour should be changed through a training intervention. The data collected at this level is used to evaluate and prioritizes the needs, problems and weaknesses of the organization and establishes the training goals that are worth pursuing. The analysis at this stage provides a skeleton for establishing the value of training and determines its prospective payoffs. This stage is directly linked to the other stages of evaluation and helps to determine whether it was worthy to pursuit the training (Otero, 1997).
Stage 2: Evaluate training design
Otero (1997) argues that the strength and weakness of each proposed training designs is analysed and the design embodies a combination of the best elements of several designs. The analysis and adequacy of training methods, strategies, materials, trainer, and venues selected is conducted to select the best and appropriate training design. The design should have a clear definition and all stakeholders in the training program must be readily available and clearly understand the various components of the strategy. The training plan adopted and materials selected must also reflect the environment in which training will take place and the demographics composition of participants (Otero, 1997).
Stage 3: Evaluate Training Implementation
This stage, according to Otero (1997), monitors the training activities and collects comments on the reaction and level of satisfaction of the participants. This stage assesses any inconsistency between what was planned for the training and what is actually taking place. Any training deficiency encountered at this level will require trainers to refer back to the training design in Stage 2 and make alterations. Evaluation techniques at this level include; interviewing participants for more information, selecting trainees who, because of their know-how or leadership qualities, are able to provide thoughtful comments on the training at this stage.
Stage 4: Evaluating Learning
This stage determines the level of training and improvements that took place. According to Otero (1997), if adequate learning occurred than one can expect that the training received will be applied at the work place and the planned results should be achieved. The data collected at this stage are used to review and perfect the activities and plans that will ensure the preferred transfer of training. Evaluation at this stage includes gathering evidence that proves that the skill, knowledge and attitude level of participants have improved.
Stage 5: Evaluating the usage of learning
According to Otero (1997), the evaluation at this stage, takes place at the workplace. Evaluators should take into consideration that actual transfer of training may not take place the way
it is planned. Evaluation at this stage determines the effective and ineffective ways in which the acquired knowledge, skills and attitude is being applied and suggests the ways of improving the program to achieve expected transfer of new knowledge, skills and attitude.
Stage 6: Evaluation Payoff
Stage 6 assesses the value the changes have brought to the organization and whether this value was worth the effort given and resources committed. The value of the training event is measured by recording the benefits, evaluating their values, and matching them to the training costs. To determine whether the training has paid off, it’s imperative to show that evaluation at this stage is linked to stage one (Otero, 1997).
The suitability of Brinkerhoff’s model to training institutions
The Brinkerhoff model suits the training evaluation process specifically the institution investigated in this study. Successful business stories can be compared and contrasted with factors that impede training application (Brinkerhoff, 2005); since the model evaluates the impact of training interventions and communicates the results in a meaningful way to the clients. The Brinkerhoff model is inclusive and focuses on meaningful business results and increases support for performance interventions. The model is simple, can be implemented in a short time frame and produces verifiable evidence of the effect of training or the lack of it. Credit is given in case the impact is successful, weaknesses are pinpointed in the system and feedback directed to those who can address the problem. The model highlights factual accounts of the best results the program is capable of achieving (Brinkerhoff, 2005). Brinkerhoff’s model can thus be utilised meaningfully to evaluate and improve training programs.
The role of training provided to employees
Training is one of the most prevalent techniques used for enhancing the productivity of individuals and communicating organisational goals to new personnel (Edens & Bell, 2003). The critical role of training is to improve human capital performance and ultimately organizational productivity (Obisi, 2011). The common goal of an organisation is to grow from strength to strength and that training ensures that each employee perform their job using the correct techniques and in doing so, helps the organization to achieve its objective (Florence, 2011). Training is a practical and vital necessity because it enables employees to develop and rise within the organisation and increase the market value, earning power and job security of an employee. Training helps to mold employees’ attitude and help them make a meaningful contribution to the organisation (Obisi, 2011). McNamara (2013) and Cole (2003) agree that training involves an expert working with participants (learners) to transfer skills, behaviour and knowledge, to improve the current job.
Training is a learning process which is aimed at impacting behaviour; knowledge and skills to enable employees execute their work tasks better. Khan et al. (2011) argue that training is the most important factor of employee performance and has a distinct role in achievement of organisational goals by incorporating the interest of organisation and the workforce. Training impacts on the return on investment and increases the effectiveness and efficiency of both employees and the organisation because employees who have more work experience, skills, and competencies. According to Coetzer (2006) the implementation of new technology, products or processes, usually requires the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. Therefore, in order to survive, organisations must monitor their external environment and adapt to the changing environment. In light of the above, the view of the authors is that training helps to manage changes in organisational structures caused by mergers, acquisitions, rapid growth, downsizing and outsourcing. These training programs are also important to cope up with the changes in technology and with diversity within the organisation.
Advantages of training provided to employees at the workplace
There are some advantages of employee training fosters the initiative and creativity of human capital resources and helps to prevent manpower obsolescence, which may be due to age, and the attitude of employees to adapt to technological changes (Obisi, 2011). McNamara (2013) and Cole (2003) agree that training involves an expert working with participants (learners) to transfer them certain areas of skills, behaviour and knowledge, to improve the current job. Moreover, Nga et al. (2010) argue that an important component of any effective training is the capacity of trainees to apply the learning gained to their work practice. Effectiveness involves more than improvement of skills and knowledge.
Strategies to facilitate the transfer of training
According to Nga et al. (2010), transfer of learning during training is not automatically conveyed; therefore the trainees need to have the intention to transfer these skills, knowledge and behaviour in systematic manner, through transfer strategies. These strategies are cognitive and behavioural in nature and include the requirement to set the goals, to analyse the work situation, prepare to deal with difficulties, identifying and use the necessary support, recognise and monitor opportunities to use acquired knowledge and skills on the job (Nga et al., 2010)., To maximise the transfer of training, managers, trainees and trainers should be actively involved before, during and after the formal training intervention (Friesen, Kaye & Associates [FKA], 2009). The transfer of training that takes place in a continuum of three categories for enhancing learning transfer is now discussed: pre-training and transfer strategies during training; and post transfer strategies.
Pre- training and transfer Strategies during training
FKA (2009) state that the manager must involve trainees in the training program planning, brief trainees on why they are going for training, and what they should expect from the training and accomplish after the training. Managers should also understand the training course, review expectations, clearly communicate to the staff members that training is a prime organisational goal and must discuss with the trainee how training initiatives will improve the trainee’s performance. Similarly, Taylor (1997) argues that it is important for the trainer to involve both supervisors and trainees in the training program as this can help during needs assessment and course design process. Through this, a program would be tailor made to suit the needs of the organisation. In order for training to be effective, the fundamentals of training design will need to be followed. These include selecting the right trainees, matching performance objectives to organisational outcomes, delivering at the right time and choosing the appropriate methods and delivery modes (Allan, 2003). FKA (2009) claim that supervisors must recognise trainee’s participation in the training program, communicate supervisory support for the training program and encourage full participation by ensuring that the trainees job content is covered during the training program. Taylor (1997) emphasises that application – oriented objectives, consisting of behavioural statements of what the trainees should do once they return to their jobs, should be developed. These objectives will prepare trainees to think beyond the training session. FKA (2009) also argue that supervisors must participate in transfer of training action plans and get feedback, possibly, each training day from the trainees to ensure the learning program is pertinent and valuable. The supervisor must also plan how he or she will assess the transfer of new skills to the job and prepare for trainees’ return to the job (
FKA, 2009).
Post transfer strategies
Allan (2003) argues that transferring skills to the workplace at the conclusion of the training program begins with a post – course debriefing which requires the supervisor to review with the trainees the content of the training program and the experience of trainees’ experience. Taylor (1997) stresses the importance of giving a positive reinforcement by systematically applying positive consequences to a trainee, depending on the demonstration of a desired behaviour. Positive reinforcement can be highly effective for cementing a pattern of desirable work behaviour and stimulate repetition. Richman-Hirsh (2001) argues that post training goals that lead to higher performance should be set. These post training goals direct attention, mobilize effort and encourage persistence on a task. Similarly, Foxon (1994) argues that the potential of goal setting as a post –training transfer strategy has only being recognized relatively recently and those trainees are more likely to use the training on the job when they are presented with a skill utilization objective, or when they determine their own goals in consultation with the trainer and supervisor. Post transfer goal setting strategies, according to Foxon (1994), increase the likelihood of transfer because they acknowledge the impact of organisational system factors while at the same time assisting the individual to focus on potential applications and to make plans for using the training.
Some factors which influences transfer of training
The following factors may influence the success of the transfer of training process:
Employees’ Attitude and Behaviour
Mwesigwa (2010) describes an attitude as an internal state of a person that is focused on objects, events, and people and exists in the people’s psychological world. Attitude is assessed through one’s feelings, thoughts or expressions. Attitude is a perception with a frame of reference. An employee with an attitude that is responsive to training will learn different skills which increase the employee performance and ultimately affect organisational productivity (Khan et al., 2011). An employee must also be motivated and willing to learn as that could influence the employee’s training and performance outcome (Nga et al., 2010).
Motivation to transfer learning and self-efficacy
Motivation to transfer learning can be described as the trainee’s desire to apply the new skills, knowledge and behaviour on the job. Trainees’ motivation to transfer learning is a key variable in determining the level of transfer of training since a trainee must first be committed to using what he/she has learnt (Nga, et al., 2010). Therefore, the higher the motivation and eagerness to transfer the more transfer will take place. According to Yan & Ming (2010) participants are more motivated to learn and transfer skills to work environment when they are highly involved in their jobs. Moreover these authors assert that such participants will transfer skills, knowledge and new behaviour, if rewards are associated with training. The self-efficacy of an employee is also an important variable which has hasan impact on individual and organisational performance. Nga, et al. (2010) argue that self-efficacy refers to the confidence of an individual to perform a task. Putting effort into a task is dependent on the belief that an individual can do so. Self-efficacy is positively related to transfer and has a strong association with motivation to learn and motivation to transfer (Nga et al., (2010).
Structural Expectations
It’s a waste of resources to send participants to a course when they are not keen and motivation to attend. Taylor (1997) suggests that the timing of sending participant plays an important role in the learning process. Without the perception by the trainee of the need for new behaviour, skills or knowledge, there is motivation to change and, therefore no readiness to learn. It is therefore imperative that training courses be timed correctly and carefully so that trainees are ready when the training program is offered.
Work Environment
A supportive working environment is imperative for any organisational productivity to take place. According to (SFRM, 2008) when training is strategically linked to organisational goals, employee will be able to see how their training transfer can improve overall organisational performance. An active and supportive organisational climate has to be created at work to make the transfer of training process effective. Employers should encourage a supportive transfer climate, hold trainees accountable for their learning and involve managers and peers to support training transfer and provide trainees with opportunities to practice the new skills in a work setting (SHRM, 2008).
Commitment of Supervisors and staff
Haslinda and Mahyuddin (2009) argue that management must ensure that trainees have immediate and frequent opportunities to apply what they have learned in training. Management should encourage and reinforce trainee’s application of new skills, knowledge and behaviour on the job. They must develop an action plan with trainees and show support by reducing job pressures and workloads, arrange practice sessions, announce transfer successes, give promotional preference to employee who have received training. Staff commitment can be described as staying with the organisation through good and bad times; attending work regularly and delivering the best of your ability. Redmond (2013) argues that organisational commitment is the degree of an individual’s relations and experiences as a sense of loyalty toward one’s organisation. It involves an individual’s willingness to extend effort in order to further an organisation’s goal. There is a psychological link between an employee and his or her organisation that makes it less likely that the employee will voluntarily leave the organisation.
Training objectives and human resource policy
Algranti (1988) argues that learning alone will not produce the desired employee effectiveness ultimately leading to organisational productivity. The organisation must provide training opportunities with end- of course training objectives, on-the-job objectives and end-results objectives that are aligned to the strategic objective of the organisation. These objectives are essential to the course design and should not only state what is to be learnt but also how it will be measured. Similarly, Taylor (1997) argues that the best way to influence the transfer of learning is to use from the learner’s point of view and not from trainer. These objectives enhance the training course and reflect the exact task required by the job. According to Kelana (2010), if a human resource policy is well developed and clearly written, it will enhance communications with employees, clarify expectations, and assist with consistency of application. Haslinda & Mahyuddin (2009) state that a human resources policy should determine a clear link between training opportunities provided and the organisation’s career development and reward system. Hence, a good human resources policy which is aligned with the strategic objectives of an organisation must be implemented at all costs as it will bring greater returns for the organisation.
Organisational Performance
The effectiveness of training can be evaluated based on some indicators of training. The position of the authors of this paper is that employee performance and organisational performance has a direct relationship. A poorly trained workforce leads to poor performance and costly mistakes (Wilke, 2006). Khan et al., (2011) points out that employee performance is the important factor and the building block which increases t
he overall performance of the organisation. Similarly, Cooney, Terziovski & Samson (2002) argue that a firm’s performance is enhanced by raising the skills, knowledge and behavior of the employees. As employees become more highly motivated and more highly skilled, so does their task performance and organisational effectiveness.
The main study was based on the effectiveness of training transfer on indicators such as whether lesson delivery plans encouraged the development of critical thinking, problem solving, lesson objectives introduced and clarified at the start of the lesson, just to mention, but a few. Therefore this paper addressed the lecturers’ perceptions on the effectiveness of the in-service training programs offered at the College of the Arts (COTA).
Methodology
The study adopted a quantitative method to investigate the effectiveness of in-service training programs at the selected institution in Namibia. The quantitative method focused on numbers or quantities and its results are based on numeric analysis and statistics (Akpo, 2006). Therefore, the study employed a descriptive design. A total of 32 academic staff formed the population as well as the sample of this part of the study. A self-administered questionnaire was given to all the 32 lecturers. The questionnaire consisted of 23 closed-ended questions of which 6 question were demographic and 17 quantitative questions. A five Likert scale was used to by participants to indicate the strength of the agreements and disagreements to the items of the questionnaire.
Results
Participants’ biographical information
From the 32 questionnaires distributed (N=32), 27 participants (11 males and 17 females) completed the questionnaires. A high response rate was attributed to the constant appeal and telephone calls made prior to the dispatch of the questionnaires.
Table 1: (See attachment)
Table 1 above indicates that the majority of lecturers (77.78%) at the College of Arts did not have teaching qualification and are therefore not professional teachers. However, six academic staff has some teaching qualifications including certificates, diplomas and a bachelor degree in education.
Lecturers’ views on their training needs
The participant’s views on their training needs are in figure 2. (See attachment)
Surprisingly enough, the figure above shows that almost 60% of the lectures disagree that the institution conducts training needs analysis exercises; while 37.03% agree that the institution does conduct training needs analysis. It can be concluded that the training needs analysis program of this institution is not fully implemented to all staff members. According to to Obisi (2011), training, should take place only when the need and objectives for such training has been identified. Such training forms the corner-stone of sound management, because it makes staff members more effective and productive. On the contrary, the training programs at this institution is designed and tailor made for the selected few. The overall moral of the employee and feeling that the employee belongs to this institution is affected. The sense of loyalty of staff members could be affected and such a feeling could ultimately the negatively influence the performance of the institution.
Views on the training program objectives
The participants’ views on the training program objectives are in Figure 3 (See attachment)
Figure 3 depicts that 30% of the respondents agreed that the objectives of the training programs that they attended were fully achieved. These sentiments were supported by 15% of the respondents who strongly agreed that the objectives of the training programs that they attended were fully achieved. Nevertheless, 15% of the respondents did not agree that the objectives of the training programs that they attended were fully achieved. Their sentiments were echoed by 18% of the respondents who strongly disagreed that the objectives of the training programs that they attended were fully achieved. Only 22% of the respondents were not sure whether the training programs that they attended were fully achieved. The different views of respondents on the training program objectives indicated that there is a lack of clear guidance of what should be expected at the end of their training program.
Views on the monitoring of training activities provided to lecturers
The views on the monitoring of training activities provided to lecturers are depicted in Figure 4. (See attachment)
Figure 4 show that 37% of the respondents agreed that the institution monitors training activities and gathers feedback from participants during training to determine participants’ reaction and level of satisfaction. The same sentiments were echoed by 8% of the respondents who strongly agreed that the institution monitors training activities and gathers feedback from participants during training to determine participants’ reaction and level of satisfaction. Still, 15% of the respondents did not agree that the institution monitors training activities and gathers feedback from participants during training to determine participants’ reaction and level of satisfaction. The remaining 22% strongly disagreed that the institution monitors training activities and gathers feedback from participants during training to determine participants’ reaction and level of satisfaction. Only 18% of the respondents were not sure whether training activities are monitored training to determine the lecturers’ reaction and level of satisfaction to the training provided.
Lecturers’ views on the support rendered for training offered
The Lecturers’ were asked to give views on the support rendered for training offered are illustrated in Figure 5 (See attachment)
Figure 5 shows that 37% of the respondents agreed that training for lecturers receives a high degree of support at all levels at the institution. This was supported by 8% of the respondents who strongly agreed that the institution supports the training activities for lecturers. On the other hand, 18% of the respondents were not sure whether training for lecturers received a high degree of support at all levels of their institution. The results indicate that there is a difference of 7% between the respondents who strongly disagreed and strongly agreed that training received a high degree of support and a further 11% exists between the respondents who agreed and those who disagreed that training receive a high degree of support at the institution. It is thus assumed that the supervisory support at the institution is taking place and staff members will be better motivated if support is given to implement new knowledge and skills at the workplace.
Views on the effectiveness of in-service training programs
Figure 6 shows lectures’ views on whether the in-service training programs offered at their institution are effective or not. (See attachment)
On issues of effectiveness of in service training, 44.44% of the respondents agreed that in-service training programs are effective. This is supported by 3.7% of the respondents who also strongly agreed that in-service training is effective. However, 37.04% of the respondents did not agree and they are supported by the remaining 14.82% of the respondents supported who strongly disagreed that the institution’s in-service training is effective.
Discussion
The analysis of results in this study revealed mixed findings. For example, Figure 2 indicates that the majority (60%) of the participants (compared 37.03%) disagree
that the institution conducts training needs analysis exercises. Based on this disparity, the authors conclude that that the training institution need to conduct training needs analysis in order to identify the training needs of the staff and as such identify the organisation’s weaknesses and strengths. Specifically, Arthur, Bennett, Edens, and Bell (2003, p. 235) state that “a systematic needs assessment can guide and serve as the basis for the design, development, delivery, and evaluation of the training program.” Several researchers (e.g., Katman & Tutkun, 2015; Winfrey; 1999); Chimezie & Osigweh, 1986) are in support of training needs analysis to assess the effectiveness of a training programs.
It is therefore imperative to evaluate the effectiveness of training in order to allow the trainee to know exactly how the learning process brings positive results to the organisation. It is thus emphasized that staff members be provided with a clear training program’s objectives beforehand. In fact, Algranti (1988), states that learning alone will not produce the desired employee effectiveness which ultimately lead to organisational productivity. According to Algranti (1988) organisation must have lesson objectives; end of course objectives, on-the-job objectives and end-results objectives that are aligned to the strategic objective of the organisation. Algranti also emphasised that these objectives are essential as what is to be learnt and how it will be measured are both an important part of the course design. Similarly, Taylor (1997) argues that the formulation of learning objectives by the trainer and not by the learner’s point of view inhibits the transfer of learning. The objectives set from the point of view of learners could enhance the course content that is offered. Based on the results of Figure 3, it thus suggested that the institution should consider providing an enhanced opportunity to the leaners in the formulation of training objectives and also in its strategic planning if the organization wants to develop competent staff members.
Monitoring of training programs is also very important in any organisation. Figure 4 indicate a scattered opinion on whether the institution’s monitoring system is effective or not. The monitoring process need to indicate whether the results have improved and this n t is an indicator that the training program was effective. If the monitoring process indicates that results were poor or remained the same, then the program needs to be improved. What is important in this context is the supervisory support, because this is believed to be essential in the application of newly acquired knowledge and skills. The supervisor must avail opportunities to the trainees to practice. Such opportunities will ensure that the reinforcement of newly acquired knowledge and skills is effective. Supervisors in organisations, according to Allan (2003), must ensure that opportunities are provided to practice the new skills by assigning trainees to the kind of jobs task that will give an opportunity to apply what they have learnt. Hence, monitoring helps to ensure support and coaching provided during workshop could be oriented to play a critical role in assuring the effectiveness in the developmental of employee activities, concerning both training and the application of newly acquired knowledge and skills at the workplace (Nijman and Gelissen, 2011).
Figure 6 above illustrates a mixed response on the effectiveness of in-service training programs provided to lecturers. This scenario is in contrast to USAID (2011) who argue that in-service training should strive towards greater effectiveness in training outcomes at all levels. It is emphasized that in-service training should lead to efficiency by improving training processes and training modalities, reduce waste and improve cost efficiency. It is therefore of utmost important to ensure that “the effectiveness of the training is determined by the set of goals” (Esposito & Freda, 2015, p. 78) in any training institution.
Conclusions and recommendations
Based on the study findings, it can be concluded that the majority of lecturers who participated in this study are only qualified in their field of expertise and are not professionally trained. The lecturers perceived that in-service training courses provided by the institution are ineffective and not related to their teaching and methodological skills. In light of the findings reported in this study, it is therefore recommended that the current requirements to become a lecturer at this particular training institution should be amended to include teaching qualifications with at least 3 years teaching experience as a compulsory requirement. The institution should provide in-service training programs that specifically address the improvement of pedagogical skills and should set up a training and performance evaluation committee to review the training and performance evaluation policies the institution as an ongoing process.
Reference: The top 6 strengths an employer wants to see on your CV – CV Template Master careers advice and guides.
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