The bibliography of Adrian Russell, the man responsible for the Westminster bridge attack is taken from newspaper articles such as the Guardian, BBC and the unclassified independent assessment of MI5 and police internal reviews presented by (David Anderson, 2017). Adrian Russell, a British Born citizen who later changed his name to Khalid Massod after converting to Islam. Khalid was known to the police and MI5 intelligence as he had served time in prison and was under surveillance. Massod was a married man with 2 children with his first wife and 2 other children with his second wife. Massod had been convicted for many offences such as “criminal damage to possession of an offensive weapon, threatening behaviour, assault occasioning actual bodily harm, assault on police and unlawful wounding” (Anderson, 2017 P:12). It is clear that Massod was already known to be a violent individual, prior to the terror attack. Massod has several opportunity factors that allowed him to become more exposed to radicalisation. He could have been drawn into the process of radicalisation when he was serving time in prison, attending mosque, and most importantly when he travelled abroad to Saudi Arabia to teach English. The “modern Saudi state is built on the eighteenth century alliance between the Wahhabi religious movement and the House of Saud” (Jones, 2004 P:73). The Quran was interpreted contrarily by the co-ruler of the Saudi Arabian government, corrupting the teaching of Quran which generated Wahhabism (Ivanhoe, 2012 P:54). Wahhabism is “the fundamental ideology which imposes extreme Sharia law and promotes segregation and co-operation with non-Muslims” (Ibid, 2012 P:54). Osama Bin Laden, former leader of the terrorist group known as, Al Qaeda was a devoted believer of Wahhabism. Bin Laden believed that “the west is attempting to impose their own secular values that are at odds with fundamental and traditional Islamic values and practice” (Jones, 2004 P: 74). Masood had travelled to Saudi Arabia, a country which is grounded on Sharia law and plays a “role as an exporter of recruits, ideology and money to violent Islamist groups such as al-Qaeda” (Hegghammer, 2006 P:39). Masood must have discovered the view of the United Kingdom and Saudi Arabia entirely conflicting once returning from Saudi. Masood is previously identified as a violent individual, could have found turning to violence to be thrilling. Another reason which might have led Masood to become radicalised was the fact that he was a fresh convert. Denn states in the Independent article that, being a recent convert to Islam, it is easy to misinterpret teachings and are “susceptible to brainwashing and propaganda, making them ideal targets for recruits” (Ibid, 2017). Since Massod had converted to Islam just a few of years before committing the terror attack in London, front of the United Kingdom parliament. There may be a chance that terrorist recruiters took advantage of Masood being a recent convert. “A non-Muslim who converts to Islam will likely find themselves marginalised, at least to some extent, from their family and friends when they decide to make this major change and declare a drastically different worldview” (Deen, 2017). Having difficulties with his personal, social identity, environmental dynamics, and being a new convent and feeling marginalised by family and friends might have made Masood turn to transnational extremism.
Bombing in Manchester Arena: May, 22nd, 2017
This bibliography of Salman Abedi are gathered from newspaper articles such as Guardian, BBC, and Independent. The 22 year old man, Salman Abedi was responsible for the bombing that took place in Manchester Arena preceding the Ariana Grande ‘Dangerous Woman’ concert. Abedi was a British citizen born in Manchester, who was raised in a religious family circle. He attended an all boys school which were mostly filled with Muslim boys, later attending University, which he shortly dropped out of. (Evans, et al, 2017) The students and acquaintance of Salman stated that, Salman was a short-tempered individual who punched a girl for wearing a skirt which was too short, and that Abedi showed hatred towards the western sexual pleasures (Ibid, 2017). A family friend of Abedi’s told the Telegraph newspaper that Salman’s family had left to Libya while Salman and his older brother stayed behind in Manchester. Without any guardians at home, Salman used this opportunity to make connections with “a group of Gaddafi dissidents, who were members of the outlawed Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG), who lived within close proximity to Abedi” (Evans, et al, 2017). Salman had later made connections with the outlawed LIFG, this connection could have been one of the reason he was drawn into radicalisation. According to the Telegraph news article, it is understood that whilst Salman had flown to Libya, he had later visited Syria when he was presumably radicalised. Salman could have become radicalised during his visit to Syria as there is movements of Al Qaeda and ISIS groups who are constantly recruiting. There can be many factors which has led him to finally reach to the top of the staircase. Salman had already climbed the first few steps of the staircase before going to Syria, where he presumably became radicalised. By observing Moghadam’s staircase theory to radicalisation it can be noted that, Abedi was at the base of the staircase when he felt injustice. When interviewing Salman’s sister Joama, she stated that Salman’s motivation behind the terror attack was seeing “the explosives America drops on children in Syria, and he wanted revenge” (Evans, et al, 2017). Salman had felt the injustice and grievance, as he was triggered by the foreign policy of the Western countries which affected the civilians especially children in the Middle Eastern countries. In some of the other news article, it states that Salman “was in Libya for the uprising in 2011 and was injured in 2014 in Ajdabiya in east Libya while fighting for an Islamist faction” (Doward et al, 2017). While travelling back and forth from Manchester to Libya in search of belonging, feeling accepted and wanting to feel included, which he was not able to secure in Manchester or Libya (Ibid, 2017). Salman reached the fourth step of the staircase stated in Mogadam’s theory ‘recruitment into groups’ and environmental dynamics stated by Schimd at the meso level, when he struggled with identity crisis, which triggered his personal, social and cultural identity level directing him to create connections. He later might have become influenced by the LIFG where he believed he fitted. Belonging to a second-generation Muslim family, Salman found it challenging to balance his views of the West and Islam, which is opposed to Western culture. Having come from a second generation migrant family, and feeling disposed, led Salman to experience an identity crisis. Secondly, external factors such as environmental dynamic and meeting the wrong people at the wrong time such as the LIFG, individuals from Syria and Libya has also had an impact on Salman. Finally, the foreign policy of America had triggered Salman to carry out an attack in the United Kingdom. In Salman’s case, it is very clear that there were multiple factors that led to his radicalisation. He had experienced each step of the Mogadam’s staircase theory just before killing himself and 22 others and injuring many at a concert.
London Bridge and Borough Market Attack in London: June, 3rd, 2017
Khuram Butt, Rachid Redouane and Youssef Zaghaba were the three men responsible for the terror attack in London Bridge and Borough Market. This attack had killed “Seven people and injured 48 in the attack before the three terrorists were shot dead by armed police” (Sengupta, et el 2017). The frontrunner of this terror attack was Khuram Butt, a 27 year old British citizen who was born in Pakistan, married with two children (Ibid, 2017). Butt has been spotted on a documentary called “The Jihadis Next Door, which is “about the presence of violent Muslim extremists in British cities” (Ibid, 2017). This documentary revels Butt carrying around a Daesh flag around in a public park however, “the police reviewed the documentary and deemed that no criminal offences had been committed” (Anderson, 2017 P:17). Butt was known to the police and the MI5 and was under surveillance for his radical views. The Guardian article states that Butt’s father had suddenly deceased when Butt was a teenager which could have resulted him in becoming radicalised (Grierson, 2017). And that had also attempted to flee to fight in Syria, but was stopped by his family members (Sengupta, 2017). The loss of Butt’s father could have triggered grievance, which could be one of the factor that had led Butt to become radicalised. Additionally, it appears that Butt had strong extreme views, ideologies and a supporter of the al-Muhajiroun. This group is a “banned Islamist group, whose leader Anjem Choudary has been linked to the recruitment of more than 100 British terror suspects” (Pettifor, et al 2017). Furthermore, Abu Haleema, one of the men from the documentary who Butt was often seen with stated that, “the Sharia is coming to the UK – this black flag you see here one day is gonna be on 10 Downing Street” (Kanapton, et al, 2018). It is clear to see that Butt was at the bottom of the staircase when he felt grievance, later on he moved up the staircase as he made connection with the people who he appeared on Channel 4, The Jihad Next Door. He was seen by many people as he was seen preaching radical Islam to kids in the park and his neighbours children (Sengupta, et el 2017). Although there is not robust information on why Butt had committed this terror attack, from his characteristics and his appearance on the documentary, it is obvious he was under the influence of ideology.
Overall Analysis On the Three Terror Attacks
Observing the three-terror attack that took place in the United Kingdom in the year of 2017, based on news articles, it is clear to see that all two of the three perpetrators of the terror attacks are from a second-generation Muslim background. Khalid, Salman and Khuram were all drawn into terrorism by a group/network and had some sort of identity crisis. For instance, Khalid converted into Islam after leaving prison. The Economist paper, states that “many conversions to Islam in the West occur in prison” (The Economist, 2017). John Horgan, state that Islam converts are likely to engage in terrorism more, than native Islam individuals (The Economist, 2017). This is because, being a recent convert means that you are “susceptible to brainwashing and propaganda, making them ideal targets for recruiters” (Deen, 2017). Being a new convert leads to double marginalisation, being excluded from his family and friend. The Muslim community are likely to perceive Khalid as an outcast. Being excluded leads him to make new connections who will accept him. Khalid had later travelled to Saudi Arabia to teach English, a country where, individuals are easily persuaded into becoming radicalised as there are movements of ISIS and Al Qaeda. Khalid possibly had become radicalised while trying to find his identity and in the process, had met the wrong people at the wrong time. The radicalisation process might have commenced in jail and developed when he went to Saudi Arabia to teach English. The theory of psychological traits along with jihad ideologies prove credible in clarifying why Khalid have committed the terror attack.
Salman Abedi, had similarly experienced identity crisis. As indicated on the news article that, Salman did not find a sense of belonging, in his home land, Libya or Manchester. He struggled with all three-identity crisis, personal, cultural and social, this caused him to reach out to the LIFG. Salman experienced a culture clash of western ideologies and his religion. His friends claimed that he had become an introvert after few trips to Libya. Although, previously he used to drink and smoke weed with his friends, which is against his religion. In newspaper article, it was stated that Salman used to be “very jolly and happy. But over the past 18 months he became withdrawn and stopped hanging around with the people he used to” (Wilkins, et al, 2017). After a few visits to Libya, he became an introvert and started making connections with the LIFG. Salman appears to have been influenced by the LIFG members to become radicalised along with travelling to Libya and presumably Syria. Additionally, Salman’s sister stated that he had taken revenge by plotting a terror attack in Manchester, because there were western countries were killing Muslim children in the Middle Eastern countries. His motivation could have been based the feeling of grievance of foreign policy and identity crisis which had led him to become a transnational extremist, allowing Salman to rebel against his religion and the western ideologies.
Finally, the London Bridge terror attack front-runner, Khuram Butt had allegedly committed the terror attack in the name of religion. Khuram, seen on the documentary, The Jihad Next Door demonstrates that he is a supporter of the banned organisation, Al-Muhajiroun. The theory of jihad ideologies and cultural identity rationalise why Khuram had committed the terror attack. In Khuram’s case, he was fighting the ‘enemies of Islam’. He states that, he is “ready to do whatever I need to do in the name of Allah” (Taylor and O’Carroll, 2017). With his collective personality, which led him to construct the distinction between “us and them” viewing “us” as the Jihad who are fighting the evil, and viewing “them” as the westerners who are against Islam led him to kill seven people and injuring several others.
Overall, it is difficult to conclude why individuals turn to violence since, everyone is triggered by different experiences. However, the theories of psychological traits, jihadist ideologies and grievance played a role in all three terror attacks that took place in the United Kingdom in the year of 2017.