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Essay: Theories of crime: Bowlby, Erikson, Eysenck

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John Bowlby’s attachment theory, otherwise known as ‘maternal deprivation’ is a well-known psychological theory of delinquency. Attachment theory originated from John Bowlby (1940) in his study of the effects of maternal deprivation on personality development. Bowlby developed attachment theory from his observations of children’s response to the breaking of bonds with their primary care giver. He was concerned with the level of stress around the loss of a bond and the impacts of having no primary figure later in life.

Bowlby (1969) defined attachment as “behaviour resulting in feelings of safety due to the bonding process with a caregiver”. He observed children separated from their mothers and stated that there is a series of stages children go through when their attachment needs are not met. The first stage involves protest, such as crying to gain attention from a carer. The second stage is despair, where the child appears to be in mourning. The final stage is detachment, where acts and the behaviour of others is normal, but the child does not want to re-attach with people who attempt to establish a relationship. The child blocks attempts of others because of the lack of attachment it has experienced, therefore it is unknown for the child to have a relationship.
The bond between a mother and a child (or attachment) was a psychological process of great meaning (Holmes 1993). The idea of attachment develops through an intense and intimate relationship between the carer and the child and the biological and psychological connection that develops. Bowlby himself stated that a ‘Loss of a loved person is one of the most intensely painful experiences any human being can suffer’ (Bowlby, 1980, p7 as in Renn 2002 p295), therefore the absence of the primary care giver (mother) is traumatising and has impacts. When an infant experiences security and comfort from their carer and regularly experiences consistent care, it becomes characteristic for the child to expect the same level of care. This care makes the child aware that he has a career and someone to rely on, otherwise the child wouldn’t be able to survive.

The absence of a primary care giver such as the mother, would lead to a loss and deprived sense of belonging. In Bowlby’s view, children require consistent and continuous care from a primary care giver until the age of 5 (Newburn, p162). Furthermore, in the future the person may struggle to attach to anyone, which can lead to them becoming alienated in society. This alienation can cause them to have issues developing a good moral conscience. Early attachment between infants and carers is necessary for normal development to occur (p9 Karen L. Hayslett-McCall and Thomas J. Bernard).

Bowlby furthered his investigation by becoming interested in the findings of biologists Lorenz (1965) and Harlow (1958). They demonstrated that animals seek attachment even in the absence of food. These findings suggested attachment is a primary and not a secondary need. This distinction is important as it emphasises that attachment is a born need, and the development of an individual’s attachment is key for their personal needs in the future. Research from developmental psychology supports the argument that attachment is “a natural inborn need” and that attachment to a caregiver contributes to later positive developments in a child’s life, not the result of socialisation (Bowlby 1969, p8).

Bowlby’s work has received some criticism. A major criticism of Bowlby’s work is by Barbara Wootton (1960, as in Tim Newburn). Wotton criticised Bowlby as she believed he had provided no evidence that would imply the separation between the mother and the child could be reversed (Tim Newburn, p162). Therefore, it is damaging to say that a relationship between the mother and child could not be built up later in life.

An example of where Bowlby’s Attachment theory can be applied is the differential crime rates between males and females. Since the 1970s, psychological studies of men (Levant and Pollack, 1995) argue boys are more likely than girls to experience disruptions in early childhood attachments. This could explain why men statistically commit more crime than women. Attachment men experience when they are younger could contribute to their needs when they become older. “Gender is the strongest and most consistent correlate of crime and delinquency” (Bartusch and Matsueda, 1996).

Bowlby’s attachment theory can help to explain criminal behaviour when the absence of attachment can lead to an attachment disorder. Stalking can be the result of a paranoid attachment, which can be defined as an “insecure style of interpersonal attachment dominated by paranoid and obsessional concerns with aggression, feared victimization and loss, grandiosity, and inferiority” (Meissner, 1978, 1986, as in Wilson et al 2007 p143). A stalker’s behaviour is the result of the lack of attachment present when they were younger and has developed into an act to “restore or compensate for the perceived or threatened loss (or lack) of a relationship” (Bowlby, 1980). Consequently, this behaviour is a way of establishing a relationship with the victim, with paranoid attachment referring to an inside mental dispute of trying to create normality and attachment that hasn’t been present previously in the individual’s life. The behaviour demonstrated is to try and create a form of attachment that the person has never experienced therefore they do not know what positive attachment is.
Loeber and Stouthamer-Lober (1986, p7 found in Attachment, masculinity and self-control, Karen L. Hayslett-McCall and Thomas J. Bernard) found that parenting processes are related to juvenile antisocial behaviour. In the Minnesota High Risk Project, insecure attachment was found to be associated with later externalizing behaviour problems (Erickson et al., 1985; Egeland et al., 1990; Sroufe et al., 1990). Fonagy et al. argued early disruptive behaviour problems, as well as later criminal behaviour and especially violent behaviour, may be related to an inhibited reflective function that arises as the result of a failure of early secure attachment. Kirkpatrick and Davis (1994) find that secure men and women are more likely to have satisfying, stable relationships.

Studies completed by researchers (Fonagy and Target, 1995; Fonagy et al, 1996) found criminal groups were more likely to show insecure attachment. Within the criminal samples, violent offenders were more likely to show severely disturbed attachment representations (Fonagy et al., 1996).

Another psychological theory that can help us understand crime was by Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Erikson was a developmental psychologist who is best known for his theory of ‘The Life Cycle’. Erikson’s staged development model (1950) is known as “The Eight Ages of Man”. In this model he summaries the eight different stages by age, psycho-social ‘crisis’ and a question the individual would ask themselves. The life stages occur across the whole life cycle. The issues a person may experience have to be resolved at each stage before a person is fully capable of moving on to the next. Each stage has favourable and unfavourable outcomes. For example, one favourable outcome of a person 25-64 years is trying to improve their life and make their life ‘count’.

Erikson focused on two stages, one of which was stage 5: youth (13-19-year olds). He labelled this age group with a Psycho-Social ‘Crisis’ as “Identity vs Role Confusion”. Erikson was intrigued by this group as younger people are more likely to be involved in criminal behaviour, as they face challenges in achieving a personal identity. At 13-19 years old, people start to question themselves due to biological changes, such as puberty and psychological changes such as their mental perspective. We often have unresolved issues that cause us to question everything as we begin to think of our life ahead and who we are. The question that an individual would ask themselves is ‘Who am I? What can I be?’. In this stage, we will eventually have a successful development of our ego identity, gaining a secure sense of ourselves. Our ability to make a success of this stage is down to inner capital built up over previous stages.
Erikson also concentrated on stage 7: middle age (25-64-year olds). He labelled this age group with a Psycho-Social ‘Crisis’ as ‘Generativity vs Stagnation’.

Erikson was intrigued by this group as it was most likely a midlife crisis would occur, and he was intrigued how this would impact the individual. In addition, people during this age range would be in employment and have life goals. It is the period where individuals are trying to achieve what they want in life or figure out their life. The question that an individual would ask themselves is ‘Can I make my life count?’. In this stage, the person will either be successful and be contempt with their life or be in a midlife crisis, where there shortcoming in life become overwhelming with feelings of depression and anxiety.
Erikson stated that the identity diffusion or uncertainty experienced by most adolescents has four major components: intimacy, diffusion of time, diffusion of industry and negative identity. Intimacy involves the fear of commitment to others as it may involve the loss of identity. It may also lead to people feeling that they have no connection or attachment to others or are unable to form these bonds. Diffusion of time ‘consists of a decided disbelief in the possibility that time may bring change and yet also of a violent fear that it might’ (Erikson, 1968, p.169). Diffusion of industry involves the inability to focus on one specific act. Negative identity involves ‘a scornful and snobbish hostility towards the role offered as proper and desirable in one’s family or immediate community’ (Erikson, 1968, p.173). Erikson suggested by this that individuals in certain situations do not fit in and look and act like an outsider in their family or community. These four components were later adapted by James Marcia (1966, 1980).

The need to achieve a sense of identity which can be defined as “a feeling of being at home in one’s body, a sense of ‘knowing where one is going’, and an inner assuredness of anticipated recognition from those who count” (Erikson, 1950, p.165). Adolescents struggle to do this as they are going through biological and psychological changes. They are also making decisions that will impact their future and will experience an ‘Identity Crisis’. This is the state of lacking a clear sense of who they are, most commonly occurring in adolescence and early adulthood. Erikson argued it was Important for adolescents to go through an identity crisis as it contributes to the process of identity formation and allows the individual to become themselves (1969, p.22).

However, Erikson’s theory did receive criticism. Erikson focused most of his claims on male adolescents and rarely mentioned females. Archer (1992, p.29) consequently argued that it portrays a ‘Eurocentric male model of normality’ which doesn’t represent the differences males and female adolescents experience. Erikson didn’t explain the process responsible for causing an identity crisis nor what can be done to help reduce one or limit the development of one.

Hans Eysenck (1916-1997) was the founder of a biosocial theory about people’s personality and linking it to crime. His book Crime and Personality where was he first published his theory in 1964 (p46 Criminal Behaviour Clive Hollin). Eysenck aimed to combine biological, individual and social factors in a theory of criminal behaviour. He claimed there was a genetic inheritance of physiological differences which lead to individual differences in response to environmental stimuli (Criminal Behaviour, Clive Hollin, p46). Eysenck argues that certain biological properties, notably limited response to conditioning, and social aspects of upbringing combine to generate personalities that are vulnerable to becoming criminal (p40 Criminal Psychology David Carter).
Eysenck’s believed there was three different components of the personality which he considered to be linked to criminality . Each of these three characteristics is a separate element of a person’s personality. ‘In general terms, we would expect persons with strong anti-social inclinations to have high P, high E, and high N scores (1977, p. 58 found in Criminal Psychology David Carter p40). Eysenck believed certain personality types were more likely to commit crime and be more devious in their behaviour. These individuals could be described as neurotic extraverts, sensation seekers, characterised by high levels of anxiety and depression, and impersonal behaviour (Eysenck & Gudjonsson, 1989). Eysenck believed there is physical differences between criminals and non-criminals

The personality traits Eysenck developed were Extraversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism. Extroversion is made up of extrovert and introvert. The main focus of this personality trait is how do people deal with emotion and anxiety. Extroverts are harder to ‘condition’ and can lose their temper and become aggressive. Introverts are easier to ‘condition’ and from conditioned responses more easily. They are more reserved and avoid stimulation. Eysenck argued that criminals show a ‘temperamental tendency to extraversion, particularly towards impulsiveness’. (Crime and Personality 1977: 146-147. Neuroticism is focused on how people deal with aggression and egocentric desire. The emotions that consist in neuroticism is low self-esteem, depression and anxiety. Neuroticists have a more reactive autonomic nervous system (ANS) which controls the levels of adrenaline. Like extroverts, Neuroticists are less responsive to conditioning. Psychoticism can consist of aggression, antisocial conduct, egocentric and having a lack of empathy. Psychoticism tends to involve criminal conduct as they are more hostile towards others.

Most people fall in the middle range (extraversion) and few people fall at either of the two extremes. Criminals tend to display higher levels of all three characteristics (Criminal Psychology, David Carter p40). There is an association of high extraversion and neuroticism with criminal behaviour with links to the notion of conditioning. Offenders will consistently score high in relation to psychoticism and will tend to score higher on neuroticism (Eysenck and Gudjonsson, 1989; Bartol, 1999). Gang crimes are mainly committed by people who are extraverts. Being involved in a gang may be the result of trying to deal with their emotions but doing so in a negative way. Aggressive crimes and crimes involving unnecessary animal cruelty are committed by those who are high psychoticism (Eysenck, 1970:236).

Therefore, as extroverts and neurotics are harder to condition, they may not have a complete conscience and therefore do not know the difference between what’s morally and lawfully right. High extraverts and high Neuroticists are driven by emotions and poor condition ability. Therefore, their emotions may override their morals which can cause them to commit crimes.

Eysenck’s theory can aid us in understanding criminal behaviour. As children grow they learn to control their conscience and understand anti-social behaviour. People develop a conscience through conditioning. Eysenck’s main premise is that the children’s socialisation occurs through the process of conditioning via the association of antisocial behaviour with unpleasant punishment (Criminal Behaviour Clive Hollin p46). Therefore, the child learns by association as well as conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) that antisocial behaviour leads to punishment. They learn this through family and friends. However, which if these people do not associate with law abiding behaviour, the child may grow up in an environment where anti-social behaviour is accepted. If the parents associate the child with punishment, the child becomes fearful of committing anti-social behaviour.

However, there are some criticisms of Eysenck’s theory . The biological basis of the theory lacks empirical evidence, with no proof that these personality traits that people may display links us to committing crime. It seems impossible to measure personality in this way. Eysenck’s theory was criticised by Trasler (1987) for the basic assumptions relating to conditionality and its psychological correlates remain to be proved (found in Criminal Behaviour Clive Hollin p.48). In addition, we are all arguably close to committing crimes without realising. If a mother’s child had no food available and the mothers only option was to steal some food to feed the child, it is more than likely that the mother will do it even though she knows she is breaking the law. Therefore, individuals can break the law without wanting too but their need is stronger than the consequences of their actions. It is not genetics or the environment that is the reason of the mother’s actions, but she is doing the greater good for her child.

Eysenck disregards the environmental influence on us and our social context. Our surroundings and status in society can influence our decision making and how we deal and think about crime. The environment influences us and depending on where we grew up, we will have different attitudes to what is morally correct in society as the laws are not universally the same. In some societies, class and ethnicity is important regarding how people behave in society, with some people being ostracised due to their status and ethnicity. This therefore may lead them to break the law.

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