Essay: Career and Technical Education Retention in Community Colleges

Career and Technical Education Retention in Community Colleges
Introduction
The in 2012 the President’s Council of Advisers on Science and Technology released a report that stated workforce forecasts indicated a need for approximately 1 million more STEM professionals than what the United States was currently producing over the next decade in order to “retain its historical preeminence in science and technology” (Olson, 2012). The President’s Council also revealed a stark statistic in that more than 60% of students left Science Technology Engineering Math (STEM) higher education programs with less than 40% completing a bachelor’s or an Associate degree (Olson, 2012). Furthermore, the report states that the need for more STEM professionals is essential, but substantially more so is the necessity to train a workforce that is “STEM capable.”
“STEM capable” workers are those who are able to use knowledge and skills from STEM fields, but work in areas that are traditionally not considered STEM. For example, advanced manufacturing professionals, and automation technicians are the types of occupations that require a wide variety of STEM knowledge and skills, such as math, programming, applied physics, and the knowledge of specific technical tools that require technicians to program automation tools, like Computer Aided Manufacturing software programs. Liming and Wolf (2008) contended that by the year 2016, 51 million jobs will require some postsecondary education, but not a 4-year degree. These occupations and the industries that employ them represent the largest and fastest growing wealth producing areas of the US economy (Olson, 2012). Moreover, the report indicated that “STEM capable” workforce far exceeds the 1 million trained workforce recommendations provided by the presidential report (Olson, 2012).
Not only are schools not producing enough “STEM capable” workers nationally, a California report on workforce development stated that California needs 1.9 million more trained workers for jobs that require some form of postsecondary education less than a four-year degree. Adding to this projection, employers are currently struggling to find workers who possess the necessary skills to fill these “STEM capable” jobs, highlighting what is nationally being recognized as the national “skills-gap” (California Community Colleges Task Force on Workforce, 2015). These “STEM capable” workers are trained primarily at the community college level in Career and Technical Education (CTE) programs (Olson, 2012). The California Community College education system is not currently producing enough “STEM capable” students with the necessary skills and education to fill the skills-gap for the growing needs of industry (California Community Colleges Task Force on Workforce, 2015).
Problem Statement and Significance
Although demand for a STEM based workforce is high, people of color remain underrepresented in the industry. For example, Latinos represent 7% of the STEM workforce, yet account for 15% of the total workforce and African Americans account for 6% of the STEM workforce and account for 11% of the total workforce (Landivar, 2013).
The US Census Bureau states that by 2044, the majority of Americans will be people of color (Colby, 2014). Malcolm (2010) brings to light that Latinos make up one-half of all school aged youth and are the single fastest growing demographic who will represent 30% of the population by 2040. African Americans will grow from 42 million to 60 million by 2060, which will make up 14% of the total US population (Colby, 2014). With these population projections, it is clear to see that people of color will be increasingly relied on to address the “skills gap” in the workforce.
Community Colleges will play a critical role in addressing the “skills-gap,” especially since students of color cluster around community colleges (Fry, 2010). Moore (2010) shows that 34% of California community college students are Latino, 9% are African-American, 18% are Asian Pacific Islander (API), and 40% White. Community colleges are a growing entry point of higher education for most students of color (Moore, 2010).
Moore (2010) also shows that 48% of white students complete a degree at a community college, 22% for API’s, 23% for Latinos, and 7% for Blacks. Highlighting the particular issues of community colleges within STEM based programs, researchers noted that students pursuing associate degrees at the community college had a high dropout rate, where seven out of ten students left STEM programs entirely (Chen, 2013).
Thus, the national and state “skills-gap” could be addressed by better serving all students but especially African-American and Latino students who will make up a greater share of the total student and workforce population in the future. So, it is imperative that this literature review focus on the research that support or impede student success in CTE programs.
Theoretical Framework
The Geometric Model of Student Persistence and Achievement as well as the Framework for Student Retention (Swail, 2003) will be used in this review to look at what helps or impedes the success of CTE students of color at the community college.
Swail’s (2003) Geometric Model of Student Persistence and Achievement is made up of a triad of factors: the social, the cognitive and the institutional. These three factors aid educators in understanding the process of a student, and the roles that each play in the development of a student as time passes. These three factors help educators understand a student’s background and how they can help that student succeed in completing their goals, such as transferring or finishing a degree/certificate. The social factor is the ability of the student to interact with others. This factor includes all of the things that make up that person socially, such as maturity, social coping skills, attitude towards others, cultural values, family influence, social influence, lifestyle, educational legacy, attitude towards learning, religious background and financial issues. The cognitive factor is the academic proficiency of the student, such as how rigorous was their high school, time management skills, study skills, technical ability, critical thinking skills, and academic extracurricular activities. In short, the cognitive factor represents the academic abilities a student brings to the table with them from high school, including both strengths and weaknesses. The institutional factor is the interaction between the student and the educational institution, whether through the classroom or through various student services. The institutional factor also includes the college culture, faculty teaching ability, financial aid, student services, academic services, recruitment and admissions.
For the educator and the institution, the model places the student at the center of the triad, but also focuses its attention on what the institution can do to improve the student experience. The model can be used to establish equilibrium for the student to achieve a net positive result as long as the institution is giving the appropriate attention and level of support that each student may need given their strengths or weaknesses socially or cognitively. The model also helps the institution focus on the integration of students with the campus, while supporting the cognitive and social development of each student (Swail, 2003).
The model is meant for users to put into practice. It is meant to help evaluate the various factors that influence and interact in the triad, and how the institution is involved in the process of student growth. Each variable has an impact on student persistence, and each could be positive, negative, or neutral. So, if all things considered are positive, then persistence may be increased. However, everything is not perfect and therefore the triad cannot be an ideal equilateral triangle, because each person’s experience is unique, varied and changes with time. The goal of the model is to try to achieve equilibrium within the triad, so that all of the forces (academic, social and institutional) can combine to help the student grow and succeed.
For example, a student may have a poor academic ability, due to a below average education in middle school and high school, and if that student has strong social factor, then it is the role of the institution to recognize the strengths and weaknesses and implement appropriate support programs to help that student succeed. Another student may have high cognitive factors, but low social factors, and so again it is important for the institution to develop well rounded individuals and make sure the student gets the necessary supports to develop a stronger social factor.
An important point that Swail (2003) makes about the triad is the interaction between the cognitive and the social factors which influences a student’s decision-making process and the ability to solve problems. Both of these processes are related to commitment (how committed are the students to a program), intent to leave (how a student views exiting), cultural and social values (how culture and social values affect a students’ perception of education), and value conflict (how students cope with conflict). Thus, this intense interaction between a students’ decision-making process and their ability to solve problems plays a key role in whether a student decides to persist or exit.
Swail’s (2003) Framework for Student Retention is a campus wide retention model that the institution can provide to build student retention by incorporating the needs of the student and resources of the institution. The model is made up of five components, financial aid, recruitment and admissions, student services, academic services, and curriculum and instruction. At the center of the framework is a student monitoring system that can and should collect data on services given so that a snapshot of student experiences can be rendered for cognitive, social, and institutional factors. Each of the five components can be explored to deliver services in order to increase student retention. Financial aid could disseminate relevant and timely information about financial services. Recruitment and admissions could use alternative assessments for placement rather than traditional ones. School visitations by alumni, students, counselors, and faculty can also help in recruitment. Academic services could implement regular academic advising, bridging & precollege programs, and facilitate informal faculty-student contacts. The curriculum and instruction portion can include regular and ongoing professional development that shows new teaching strategies and various issues affecting students. Student Services could create a more pluralistic environment by promoting diversity and multiculturalism thus improving campus climate and helping students of color with social integration.
Swail (2003) believes that the monitoring system for student retention must be comprehensive, longitudinal and recursive. Comprehensive in that, data must include quantitative and qualitative data from each student. For example, surveys can be taken, or focused groups and interviews conducted to help get a clearer picture of student experiences. The process must also be monitored throughout the cycle from before a student begins, all the way through when the student completes their program. Finally, the process must be continually updated and monitored, so that trends can be analyzed, and further improvements can be made, through constant and continuous improvement.
Lastly, Swail (2003) argues that without leadership, implementation of retention programs is futile. Leadership needs to be committed to serving all students, and at the same time it ought to target special populations to secure their retention and thus ensuring a quality education for all students. Only then can retention integrate and develop all the various communities within an institution in both a supportive social and educational environment. All of this combined aligns the student with the institution creating greater integration between the student and the institution which will then support retention.
Source Selection, Rationale and Strategies for Literature Review
Multiple sources were called upon to carry out this literature review. I conducted several scans of different academic databases through the University of Southern California library. I queried through EBSCO Host, Academic Primer, and google scholar. I also consulted with an academic researcher at the library, and the Dean, of a CTE program at a nearby community college.
Initial key searches were a combination of the following: Community Colleges, Career and Technical Education, Vocational Colleges, Two-Year Colleges, Institutional Characteristics, Retention, Attrition, Achievement, School Holding Power, Outcomes of Education, Minority, Racial, and Ethnicity. As the literature review progressed, some key sources snowballed and lead to other key research documents (Ridley, 2012). Additionally, as I continued to research, I had to expand and use other terms such as students of color, Latinos, and African Americans.
I also had to expand the scope and include older research because I found that retention research was mostly focused at the 4-year institutional level. Retention research that was focused on community colleges did not specifically address CTE programs, not to mention students of color in CTE programs.
Vocational education was included only because it was suggested by the academic researcher, but it is not a term used professionally in the US any longer since the late 90’s. Vocational education has been replaced by Career and Technical Education, to emphasize its increased use of academic rigor in the areas of math, science, and engineering not including the substantially higher set of technical skills required (ACTE, 2016).  Although the term Vocational Education does come up within research papers they are based primarily in Europe, and Australia, which is outside the scope of this paper. Additionally, the California Community College Chancellor’s office as of 2017 has now adopted Career Education over Career Technical Education, which will affect research outcomes in the future. Another term which was of little use was Two-year colleges since most colleges do not refer themselves as such and prefer the term community college.
Literature Review
By understanding who the student is, socially and cognitively, the geometric model can be applied by the institution to increase persistence and achievement of CTE community college students of color. Therefore, a general outline of the type of student who attends a community college and more specifically a CTE program must be demarcated. Furthermore, this literature review will explore who these students are and why these students persist or exit CTE programs.
Social Factors of a Community College Student
Using the geometric model of student persistence and achievement it is important to discuss the social factor first, so that one can see the, socioeconomic status (SES), family influence, cultural values, educational legacy and financial issues that persist among community college students (Swail, 2003).
The Community College is an open institution that serves all, from the recent high school graduate to the full-time worker who goes to school part-time, to those who are unemployed and are seeking retraining to get back to work. The American Association of Community Colleges estimates that there are approximately 12.8 million people taking either credit or noncredit classes at the community college.  7.7 million are taking for credit classes, and the majority are taking part time classes (American Association of Community Colleges, 2014).
The National Center for Education Statistics cites that community college students are more likely to be female, Black or Hispanic and from low income families (Horn, 2006). In general, most community college students are older with an average age of 24 years. 61% of community college students claimed that they were financially independent from their parents. 36% were married and 25% were single parents. 26% were from the lowest income group. 79% worked an average of 32 hours a week and 41% worked full time while in school (Horn, 2006).
Bailey (2005) distinguishes community college students further, saying that while Black and Whites have about equal proportions entering 4-year schools as 2-year schools, twice as many Hispanics are going to community college over 4-year schools. Additionally, more than half of the lowest socioeconomic status (SES) students enrolled at the community colleges whereas, 70% of the highest SES enrolled at 4-year institutions. Increasingly, over half of all first-generation students also choose to go to community college.
Hirschy (2011) paints a clearer picture of why the lowest SES students are clearly in CTE programs. These students are seeking to reduce their own poverty by enhancing their skills and improving their job prospects. And although, many students enrolled, more than two-thirds left after completing a year or less of course work. She also points to another social factor that she describes as “career integration,” which means that CTE students may already have an idea of what they want to do, and thus seek programs that are in line with their chosen field. “Career integration” also plays a social role, in that CTE students are relating their classroom experience to their off-campus work experiences. This interaction between professionals in the field and their classroom experiences reflects career integration.
Carter’s (2013) dissertation looked at educational legacy of CTE students in the southeastern portion of the US and found that no correlation existed between educational legacy and program completion. On the positive side, family influence may be a predictor of student enrollment in CTE programs but surmises that family members and the student may have underestimated the intensity and academic rigor of the modern CTE curriculum.
Cognitive Factors
The cognitive factor is the academic proficiency of the student, such as content knowledge, academic rigor, quality of learning, critical thinking, technical ability, study skills, and time management. The cognitive factor can be looked in two ways in what the student brings to the table, but also in continuity as the student develops at the institution (Swail, 2003).
Bailey (2005) points out that white students outpaced students of color in remediation at the community college level, noting that 60% of all community college students took remediation in their first year, whereas 75% of all blacks and Latinos took remediation. Moreover, 7.9% of Black and 15.4% of Hispanic students graduated with an associate degree in six years. Bailey believes that these statistics indicate that community colleges students of color generally start off far less academically prepared than their white counterparts.
Horn (2005) showed a strong correlation between retention and level of commitment. The level of commitment for students who stated that they attended at least part-time and specified that they wanted to transfer or complete a degree were deemed as “more committed.”  The research indicated that 49% of community college students were “more committed” to completing their goals versus 39% were “less committed,” and 12% showed “no commitment” to a program. Of the 49% who were “most committed’ the majority (29%) indicated a desire to transfer, 9% wanted a general associates degree, 7% wanted an applied associates degree, and 4% wanted a certificate. Of those who showed the strongest commitment 83% had the highest retention, the “less committed” had 70% retention rate, and the noncommittal had a 58% retention rate. Although Horn, does not show why the various commitment levels occur, it’s important to note that commitment has some correlation to persistence.
Bahr (2010) in a seven-year study of 165,921 first time college students identified six clusters of behaviors: transfer, vocational, drop-in, noncredit, experimental, and exploratory.  This study points out the fact that the community college system serves many educational goals for an increasingly diverse population of students. Bahr distinguishes between those who are “transfer-seeking” and “degree seeking” highlighting the fact that measures of retention can be skewed or misrepresented, since not all students are seeking to transfer. Some important demographic characteristic of what Bahr calls “vocational” students is that they are generally older, late 20’s to mid-30’s, male students. Almost twice as many Black students are in vocational programs (7%) than transfer programs (8%), and a significantly higher percentage of Hispanic students are in vocational programs (37%) compared to transfer programs (28%). Lastly white students had about the same proportion of students in both transfer and vocational programs (40%-39%).
Greene (2008) explores the engagement of students of color, minority status, and academic outcomes, finding that students of color have high engagement, but have been underprepared for the rigors of college life. The study indicated that students who delayed going to college, received a GED, financially independent, have kids or dependents, attended school part time, or worked full time have an ever-higher risk of not completing a degree or transferring.  Taking each as a variable, each presents their own obstacle, but combining these obstacles makes retention so much harder for the student of color.
Institutional Factors, A Framework for Retention
The institutional factor is the interaction between the student and the institution, whether through the classroom or through various services, including, recruitment and admissions financial aid, student services, academic services, and curriculum & instruction. The institutional factor and the Framework for Retention were combined here because of the significant overlap since all community colleges have institutionalized retention strategies. Additionally, little of the research found showed institutional factors that specifically addressed CTE programs.
Institutions play a critical role in the life of student’s decision-making process to either persist or exit a CTE program. First, it’s important to look at what CTE professionals are saying about the field and its most pressing needs. In Lambeth’s (2008) dissertation, a national Delphi survey was conducted brining national CTE experts together to discuss problems, objectives, and activities that would serve as a research agenda for the CTE community. In this discussion, student graduation rates and dropouts were thought of as important, but they did not address the growing demographic changes and the accompanying needs of those students. Additionally, CTE experts found a distinct barrier between themselves and academics in that they had to explain why their programs mattered, required funding, and deserved attention. So, institutionally within the community colleges, CTE experts believe that CTE programs seem to be maligned to the fringes of the system by both politicians and educators.
There have been some notable institutional measures enacted by both the federal level and at the state level. Obama’s 2010 Skills For America’s Future Initiative sought to strengthen the relationship between industry and the community colleges in order to prepare and train American workers for new skills. This initiative also called out for increased funding and setup for the first time ever a summit of community colleges at the White House. Following through with the initiative to train more skilled workers, the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act included $2 billion over four years for community college and career training (Sabochick, 2010).
In California, Governor Jerry Brown proposed an $876-million-dollar budget for CTE programs. In combination with a $500-million-dollar program called the Career Pathway trust that linked industry standards with education. $29 million will be allocated to apprenticeships, and $48 million to extend the CTE pathways initiative (Maître, 2016).
The California Community College Chancellors office recently announced through its CTE Data Unlocked Initiative that they will release six expert background papers addressing the following issues: Workforce Data & Outcomes, Curriculum Development & Instructors, Structured Pathways and Student Support (2 parts), Regional Coordination and Funding in order to address the deep research gaps that exist in CTE programs (California Community College Chancellor’s Office, 2018).
Discussion of Policy, Practical and Research Implications and Applications
Students of Color in CTE Programs
The research that focuses specifically on students of Color in CTE programs is minimal if non-existent. Although some of the research does place a small lens on demographic details of students of color in CTE programs, not many researchers take the whole geometric model into account. Allot can be said about all three components in Swails Geometric Model of Persistence and Achievement in relation to the social, cognitive and institutional factors relating to retention and students of color in CTE programs. Hirsch (2010) did research on CTE programs, and Lambeth (2008) did discuss the national narrative, but for the most part, allot of research is missing in regard to how students of color are either persisting or exiting CTE programs.
Discussion
After looking at the both the social and cognitive factors that make up CTE students of color at the community college, it is easy to see that there are various issues that affect retention.
First the majority of these students are low SES, where 79% are working at least pastime, and 41% are working fulltime. Significant percentages are also breadwinners for their families and must support children.
Secondly, many are underprepared at the high school, where at least 75% of students of color have to take remedial classes, which indicates a total lack of institutional collaboration between high schools and the community colleges, and a potentially inequitable assessment system.
Lastly researchers and institutions have not been willing to look at the CTE issue critically. The scant research is revealing because CTE although recently a benefactor of funds has been historically maligned to the fringes of academic research. It is as if, the technical people who build the buildings, the warships, the planes, don’t matter, and that the only people who matter in research are those who go to four-year institutions. And even when research is conducted at the community college, CTE is an afterthought. Adding insult to injury is the lack of research on the largest group of students in the community college systems, which overwhelmingly choose to be in CTE programs, that is students of color.
Implications
Policy. National, state, local policy reveals that CTE is a growing concern for both the government and for business and industry. The federal government and national industry leaders recognize that the “skills-gap” is a major issue and have followed suit with policies that fund and support education in CTE. At the same time, California is also leading the way with equity. In the past, equity was not something that was looked at and attached to funding sources like they are today. For example, the Chancellors Office implemented a Student Success and Support Systems that include equity and have for the first time funded SSSP more than $196 million dollars, double what Matriculation had ever received. The task of the SSSP is to ensure that all students are provided with orientation, assessment as well as education plans. In addition, a scorecard will be established to see how different groups of students are impacted by both funding and policies (Michalowski, 2014). Although CTE Data Initiative does not expressly state that equity is an important aspect, greater cooperation and collaboration between CTE Data Unlocked and SSSP can better serve all students.
Practice. Because CTE is an umbrella term that encompasses over 11 different clusters of disciplines, such as manufacturing, transportation, and business, it was difficult to cull out research that was broad yet specific to CTE programs and students of color at the community college level. Swail (2003) offers broad recommendations to improve retention that could be practiced at the community college level to help improve the success of students of color in CTE programs. Academic preparedness, having students better prepared can aid in retention. Therefore, greater collaboration between highs schools and community colleges is in order. Commitment to educational goals, for both the student and the institution must be better aligned. So far, at the community college system, SSSP requires all students to create an education plan, take an assessment and go through an orientation. This new initiative will ensure a good fit between the student’s goals, and the institutions. Social and academic integration is critical, in that as students of color are more integrated with their peers on campus through activities, or with their faculty through mentorships, this too can also aid with retention. The majority of CTE students are people of color yet, many leave before completing which suggests that campus climate, implicit bias, micro-aggressions and culturally insensitive curriculum may be factors in retention as students may not feel a sense of belonging. No research has examined the role that industry-based curriculum has an adverse effect on students of color in CTE. Financial aid is large issue for CTE students, since the majority work part time or are working full time. Increased financial aid can help students alleviate some of that pressure, by offering help for those working adults who can’t afford to pay, offering easier access to work study, institutionalizing internships or apprenticeships which collaborate between the CTE pathway and the industry it is aligned with.
Research. The gaps in research were evident throughout the research. The research is so limited that the California Chancellor’s Office has recently created six research documents: Workforce Data & Outcomes, Curriculum Development & Instructors, Structured Pathways and Student Support (2 parts), Regional Coordination and Funding in order to address the research gaps that exist in CTE programs (California Community College Chancellor’s Office, 2018). The intent of the research was to help aid the community colleges with aligning curriculum with both industry standards, and labor market conditions. The research was broad, and its’ title was ambitious “Doing What Matters,” but it clearly lacked a comprehensive analysis on the needs of CTE students of color. “Doing What Matters” clearly missed the mark in regard to equity and is endemic to the larger narrative in American culture and industry.
Conclusion
The purpose of this paper was to examine what the CTE student of color brings to the community college campus both cognitively and socially, and how does the institution play a critical role in the decision students must make to persist or exit a CTE program. This is especially important given what the national trends indicate that by 2040 the majority of students and the workforce in the US will be people of color. The Geometric Model of Persistence and Achievement in conjunction with the Retention Framework was applied throughout the literature review. The social and cognitive factors in the geometric model were used to examine CTE students of color and the institutional factor and retention framework was used to examine what policies were being put in place to help students of color. The need for a trained work force is especially important given the competitive nature of the economy, but it is also important that people are brought out of poverty, provided better employment opportunities and higher pay. Addressing the needs of students of color will be an increasingly important aspect of training a “STEM capable” workforce to fill the “skills gap.” Key findings are that the community college system serves a wide variety of educational goals, and not all goals can be measured with accuracy and precision because of the openness of the community college system with many on-ramps and off-ramps. Furthermore, gaps exist in the research in that not too many researchers are looking at this growing problem. The California Chancellors Office has recently written some research on the subject and has begun the process of filling this gap in the research, but the absence of addressing the gap in equity was revealing.