Essay: Progression since the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Education has consistently been an important topic of many campaigns throughout history. Education reform has progressed and efforts to ensure children received an equitable education has transformed with every change in leadership. More specifically, Alabama’s standard of accountability to determine whether a school has passed or failed has been met with plenty of criticisms. The demographics of schools labeled passed or failed have some significant disparities. Majority of the schools labeled as failed has a large population of African American students. Past legislations were to safeguard any discriminations for students so they received a quality education. However, mistakes from the past has lingered and effected the current condition of education. As a result, the impacts have left communities impoverished, restricted advancement of leadership in schools for minorities, and prevented educational reform from advancement.
Many efforts have been attempted in the course of history from Brown v. Board of Education (1954) to Every Students Succeed Act of 2015 (ESSA) to impact the quality of education for all children. However, the impact of Brown’s case may have been the foundation of many mandates that current educators faced today. Although, progression from where education was in the past has provided better opportunities. There were still some detriments throughout the years that has caused concerns for many. Furthermore, a focus on the case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) was the motivation behind this research. I planned to overview the disparities of this case and how it impacted African Americans in general instead of the benefits of desegregation.
The lasting effects of the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) to desegregate schools to allow African American students to enroll in White schools left some unintended consequences in the African American community. Many years after the case to desegregate schools, some schools across the nation has now re-segregated (McNeal, 2009). The impact of re-segregation reassured gaps among schools that were considered as failed or passed. The racial differences of schools labeled as passed or failed provided evidence that the goal of Brown v. Board of Education has not been achieved. The challenge to ensure equitable educational opportunities for all students has been the goal for school leaders and policy makers. However, those in positions of leadership were mostly White males at the inception of integration. Some researchers posited within the Critical Race Theory for racial equality to happen it would only be accommodated within the joined interest of Whites (Wilkerson & Wilson, 2017).  If this suggested theory was true, the question was if the ruling of Brown (1954) benefited African Americans in the way it was intended.
As cited by Moore (2013), National Center for Educational Statistics reported in 2010, only 11% of principals were African American (Moore, 2013). The unique challenges for predominantly African American schools for administrators and teachers hindered the purpose of school. Challenges in the form of impoverished communities, lack of parental support, and drug culture has plagued many African American schools. Yet, principals were expected to have students perform on a norm basis on standardized testing and attend school regularly.  Some might argue that the challenges of schools were more about poverty than race. Although true, schools and communities with the highest poverty, crime, low-achievement, and disproportionate federal, state, and local funds has large populations of African American students (Henderson, 2015). Sixty-four years later after the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education (1954), many of the challenges of unequal educational opportunities still existed.
The United States Constitution stated all citizens should have a right to and not be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of the law. Neither should be denied equal protection of the laws (U.S. CONST. amend XIV, sec.1). Therefore, the purpose of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) were to ensure all students despite race were in a position to take advantage of a quality education. Furthermore, students’ property interest to receive a free public education may not be prohibited because of the Due Process Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment. In addition, students’ protection of equitable opportunities free from discrimination based on race, national origin, ethnicity, disability, or gender has been protected under the Equal Protection Clause.
As a result of the Fourteenth Amendment, cases such as Brown v. Board of Education (1954) have become a baseline to ensure all students received a free and equitable public education. In 1965, a federal legislation was passed to provide funding to elementary and secondary schools called the Elementary and Secondary (ESEA). The passing of this legislation had an emphasis to provide educational equality to students and hoped to close achievement gaps. In President Bush’s tenure, the legislation was reauthorized to No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. The goal of this legislation was to increase accountability by standardized testing given to students to measure progress. The progress determined how effective schools and teachers prepared students. The most recent reauthorization has been Every Student Succeeds Act.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
The case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) was appealed to the United States Supreme Court after a decision was upheld in the favor of the school district to continue to segregate schools. The case was consolidated along with four other separate cases heard previously in other District and/or Circuit Courts. The other cases were Briggs v. Elliot (1951), Davis v. Board of Education of Prince Edward County (1952), Bolling v. Sharpe (1951), and Gebhart v. Ethel (1951). Facts from all five cases faced a similar issue of segregated public schools. Brown v. Board of Education was the chosen name consolidated in all five cases. The argument from the National Advancement Association of Colored People (NAACP) and an attorney, Thurgood Marshall, was that separate school systems for African American and White students violated the Equal Protection Clause under the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution (Brown v. Board, 1954).
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) case involved common practice of segregation in public schools primarily in elementary schools. African American students were forced to attend schools in farther distance than a nearby school which was considered a school for only White students (Neal & Moore, 2004). Oliver L. Brown (plaintiff), a railroad worker and pastor, challenged a local school district who would not allow his daughter to attend an all-White school that was nearly two miles away from their home. He was met with a refusal as many other African American parents who made the same request but all faced a decision by the federal court to side in favor of the school district.
The school district defense argued segregation of schools met the Equal Protection Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment because the facilities in all White schools and all Black schools were equal. They referenced the case of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) as the basis for their argument in District and Circuit Courts. Therefore, the effects of segregation on African American children were challenged (Brown v. Board of Education, 1954).
The argument of the plaintiff began with the intent of public education to establish proof that segregation deprived African American student’s equal protection of the laws. Arguments included the purpose of education was to provide students with appropriate training and establish cultural values to become a successful part of the community. Furthermore, separation of African American students from other students of similar age and qualifications created a feeling of inferiority that may be irreversible. African American students’ feelings of inferiority affected the students’ motivation to learn and deprived them of the benefits received in an integrated school system (Neal & Moore, 2004). It was determined by the United States Supreme Court that segregation was a denial of Equal Protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (Brown v. Board, 1954).
As the decision of Brown v Board of Education (1954) began to be implemented, many states resisted. The federal government did not provide any mandates on how to desegregate schools. Therefore, the enforcement to desegregate schools to fidelity was not fully enforced by the government until 10 years after the ruling. Not until the 1964 Civil Rights Act, school districts began to integrate schools because those who continued to operate segregated schools would have federal funds constrained (McNeal, 2009). Derrick Bell (as cited in Gooden, 2012) who has been considered as an originator the Critical Race Theory questioned the Supreme Court’s sudden decision to rule in favor of Brown and the NAACP. He concluded that the ruling was” motivated by domestic and world considerations instead of moral qualms of African Americans’ experiences (Gooden, 2012 p. 69).” As a result, state’s motive to desegregate schools were met with unjust measures without full implementation to equality for all.
The unintended consequences of the ruling
The results of school desegregation included the termination of Traditional African American Schools (TAAS). African American teachers and school leaders were all located in the communities they served and were seen as prominent figures in their communities (Brooks, 2009). As African American students were forced to integrate into schools because of ineffective desegregation orders to meet federal guidelines, it caused many African American teachers and school leaders in TAAS to lose their jobs because of a declined enrollment. Many schools were closed or consolidated. A large number of African American principals were demoted to serve as assistant principals in consolidated schools, forced back into teaching positions, or terminated (Chesley, 2004). Prior to ruling of Brown v. Board of Education (1954), there were 82,000 African American teachers. As cited by Chelsey (2004 p. 302) by 1964, 38,000 African American teachers and administrators lost their jobs in 17 southern and border states. In Alabama, African American principals declined from 250 to 40 in a 3-year period (Ethridge, 1979 & Holmes 1990).
Communities were adversely affected. Principals and teachers who lived in the communities with their students and served in other roles in the communities eventually moved out of those communities. As a result, those communities suffered from a lack of middle class and role models to students. Communities began to become more impoverished, crime rates increased, and neighborhoods became dilapidated. As cited by Brooks (2009), some researchers suggested the departure and the impact of the African American community has been a result of “social dislocation” (Wilson, 1988).  The theory of social dislocation has been when a mass exodus has taken place and the African American community has become isolated (Brooks, p. 60). Families who continued to stay in the communities after a majority of the middle class African Americans left were faced with an assortment of challenges.
Many perceived the roles of African American principals vastly different compared to White principals. African American principals were viewed as the authoritarian in schools and were looked upon to keeping students in line (Gooden, 2012).  Often African American principals were placed in low performing, under-funded, and under resourced schools which were largely African American populated. It was rare for an African American principal to be hired at a majority White school (Wilkerson & Wilson, 2017; Brown, 2005, McCray et al., 2007; Tillman, 2004; Valverde & Brown, 1988). However, when an African American principal has been successful in schools with challenges, they were often moved or promoted to other schools with high needs. There were some African American principals who found a need to serve in high priority schools because of their desire to serve as a transformative leader who considered socioeconomic advancement of African American communities as their purpose to education (Wilkerson & Wilson, 2017).
In many cases, African American principals presided over schools with extreme challenges were expected to accomplish the same goals as schools without the same challenges (Gooden, 2012). State mandates such as reduce discipline, increase attendance rates, and raise student achievement have been some of the goals many states use to determine school effectiveness. The demographics of many of the schools with these challenges has been largely populated by African American students.  Consequently, these students have been disciplined more and a disproportionate amount have been placed in special education classes. Also, African American students have been placed in less rigorous academic courses and faced lower expectations from teachers (Chesley, 2004).  An extreme contrast from what was considered effective practice of high expectations for minority students to succeed. These challenges made jobs of African American principals more difficult as well as the mandates of state departments.
Conclusion
In summary, there has been major progression since the ruling of Brown v. Board of Education (1954). The cost has been met with significant setbacks throughout time and recognition of some of the issues has become more evident in research. The task to continue to recognize the issues must be sustained and effective measures were needed to find solutions. School districts and state department of education must find ways to diversify staffs and collaborate to address all concerns from various groups of people. In addition, support must be given to leaders and schools with extreme challenges. Many schools who lack resources because of low funding have been faced with shortage of staffs, programs, and exposure to the arts. Offering support to fill the gaps would be a foundation to ensure all students have equitable educational opportunities. More specifically, support to principals who served in more urban schools, would benefit from increased staff with backgrounds in social services, counseling support, behavioral health, and parental involvement. Also, more attention needed to be given to recruit and hire more African American principals. (Henderson, 2015).