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Essay: Social & emotional learning: neurological, psychological & social theories & concepts

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The awareness of social and emotional learning has been acknowledged for many years and has been emphasised by Maslow’s (1954a) hierarchy of needs, supported by Every Child Matters policy (2003). Both recognise the need for a holistic education which includes social and emotional learning. Every child has the right to an education (The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1992b) and article 29 states ‘You have the right to education which develops your personality, respect for other’s rights and the environment’ therefore, the legislation and guidance depicts that education should have a holistic approach which should include social and emotional learning. This is supported by the National Curriculum which states ‘all schools should make provision for personal, social, health and economic education (PSHE) (2013a). However, does not define the amount of time that should be spent on PSHE. Social and emotional learning (SEL) in schools is included as part of children’s personal, social, health and economic education (PSHE) lessons. The Department for Education (2013c) states ‘Personal, social, health and economic (PSHE) education is an important and necessary part of all pupils’ education’. Nevertheless, the amount of time spent on PSHE varies in every school and how it is delivered is decided by the Headteacher and the leadership team therefore, the amount of time spent in schools on SEL will vary. Furthermore, the National Curriculum changed in 2013, which now allows for educational settings to deliver SEL as they see fit. Despite this, The Office for standards in Education (Ofsted) (2017) do now evaluate the effectiveness and the impact the SEL has on a child’s welfare and mental health when inspecting the setting.
This essay will essentially compare and critically evaluate selected neurological, psychological and social theories and concepts. Additionally, it will critically analyse different types of social and emotional learning resources used in setting and the effectiveness of them. Similarly, it will evaluate how they link to the wider curriculum, impact on other aspects of school life and whether they facilitate monitoring and evaluation.
An important component of SEL (social and emotional learning) is to teach the child skills and knowledge necessary to understand others, show empathy towards others, manage their own emotions and equip them so they can become valued members of society. Children spend 635 hours per year at school (Burgess, 2013) therefore, it should where educators can deliver a holistic, pupil based education; ensure all children are receiving an adequate amount of social and emotional learning.
A crucial part of SEL is to provide children with behaviours for dealing with negativity. Rodriguez (2013) expressed the opinion that negativity and the experiencing of sadness or anger is a vital part of learning and imperative to our mental health. If children are equipped to deal with positive and negative experiences and the educator acts as a role model; teaches the child how to deal with challenges (Bandura, 1977). However, in school settings today it may be seen that children are not given enough negative experiences. For example, in some settings, during sports events every child receives a certificate for taking part not just the winners therefore, never having the experience of disappointment.
Weare and Gray (2003) unveiled schools were not consistent in their teaching, many schools were not providing children with the skills they require. Moreover, Weare and Gray (2013) continued, stating they ‘believe that a higher priority should be given to the promotion of emotional and social competence and wellbeing and that there is strong evidence that (SEL) needs to start as young as possible’. Graham and Yeo (2015) support this and state ‘developing social and emotional skills when young is seen to be a crucial foundation to living a happy and fulfilling life’. As a result of the study the Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning, whole school program (SEAL) was introduced (DfE, 2005). This allowed for a more cohesive, holistic approach throughout educational settings and supported important legislation; Every Child Matters (2003) and The Healthy Schools Program (1998).
Durlak et al. (2011a) conducted a large scale meta-analysis of implementing school based SEL interventions. It was delivered on 270,034 children starting from kindergarten through to high school. This was the largest scale meta-analytical social study in the U.S with results that indicated that the implementation of SEL interventions were a success. ‘Compared to controls, SEL participants demonstrated significantly improved social and emotional skills, attitudes, behaviour, and academic performance that reflected an 11-percentile-point gain in achievement’ Durlak et al. (2011a). It may be argued that the SEL interventions are a valuable preventive and promote positive outcomes as well as reducing negative outcomes in all children, however it could be concluded that the interventions were not carried out on children who needed the SEL the most, such as children who had pre-existing behavioural or emotional problems.
A similar meta-analysis study has recently been carried out, by a team including Durlak who participated in the 2011 study and this showed an average 13 percentile point increase higher than pupils who did not have the interventions, social skills and positive attitudes towards others also increased, however once again the study excluded children you would consider in need of the interventions such as children with behavioural issues (Durlak et al. 2017b). In brief, the meta-analysis was carried out on a large sample of children who did not have any pre-existing problems and it has shown successes. Nonetheless, it could be argued that the children who are showing the pre-existing problems such as children who have been excluded for bad behaviour need the SEL more than most children; early intervention is imperative. Therefore, supporting those children with pre-existing problems as early as possible, could have equally positive outcomes. Furthermore, they did offer self-reporting questionnaires and this could be subjective based on the opinion of Cotterel (2014). Early intervention can be effective and improve outcomes for young people and families (Early Intervention Foundation, n.d.)
Firstly, we must consider the development of the individual. Intervention and interactions with care givers are vital to the child’s brain development, a child’s brain development begins prenatal and continues into adulthood (Centre on the Developing child, 2007). Psychological, emotional, social, and cognitive development are all inextricably linked therefore, if one of them is not developed correctly it can have an impact on the others. The primary care giver has the biggest influence on the development of the child (Munsell et al., 2012).
The brain is a complex muscle which adapts and changes to certain traumas in one’s life. In the first year of life 1 million neural connections develop every second (Styles, Jernigan, 2010). Interactions with loved ones or carers are vital for the child for example: babbling and cooing, without these interactions the brain does not develop correctly and pathways shut down. Social interactions are a necessity; ‘it is the experience of social interaction and communication that wires the brain to either its full potential or a compromised state’ (Perry, 2007). This can be compared to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943b). When applied to a child’s life, if positive interactions and relationships with care givers are not established they will not have their hierarchy of needs met, therefore never reaching self-actualisation. In the same way, Bowlby’s (1969) attachment theory and supports this. In brief, if a secure attachment is never formed this will affect how people behave in relationships and friendships and will have an ongoing effect on their emotions (Brgaard, 2016). This could then continue into adulthood, if the child never formed affirmative, positive attachments and loving interactions this could affect self-esteem, failure to build relationships and the feeling of being safe, which is supported by Bowlby’s (1969) attachment theory.
Horney (1967) supports Maslow’s theory emphasising that genuine love and discipline develop the feeling of safety and satisfaction in turn building positive relationships. However, if these needs are not met this can lead to feelings of anxiety and may cause hostility towards their primary care giver. Horney also supported nurture over nature, she believed that people are born a blank canvas and their lives are determined by varying experiences, positive interactions whilst acquiring different attributes and not due to DNA. She believed men and women were born equal and brains were malleable by culture, life experiences and desires, whereas Freud (1961) argued this and believed men and women’s brains were very different and the way they were formed was wholly down to DNA.
Freud (1961) founded the study of psychoanalysis, he believed traumas and unresolved issues during childhood could be coaxed out by sensitive talk therapy. This can be seen in settings today by way of one:one counselling or through emotional literacy. Place2Be (1994) delivers school based therapeutic interventions. A large study was carried out on 47,000 children in primary schools, based on the findings of Place2Be, children’s social and emotional wellbeing had improved as perceived by their family members and teachers following interventions (White Et al., 2009). Supporting this Fox and Butler (2007) carried out a small-scale study on 219 pupils, attempting to discover whether counselling is successful in schools. The results suggested that the treatment delivered to the children, had less distress and fewer problems were observed. However, they recommended further research is required, to discover when and to who it was more of a success to.
The evidence suggests that pupils receiving psychological therapies were a success however, The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE, 2010) expressed the opinion and recommended several forms of therapy as first-line interventions, not talk therapy or counselling in isolation. Another essential point regarding one:one counselling and emotional literacy is the relationship a child has with the facilitator. Mindmatters (n.d.) advocates how vital it is for children to have a trusting and caring relationship with the individual, as a result of this trust and understanding, will promote open communication.
Similarly, Bowlby (1969) suggested that children come into this world with an innate response of survival; form attachments to survive. Consequently, if secure attachments are not formed this would lead to distress and negative experiences concluding that a trusting relationship is not formed between the pupil and the facilitator. Belsky and Fearon (2002) support Bowlby and state ‘poor attachment outcomes are associated with long-term adverse consequences in cognitive, adaptive, and behavioral domains’.
Comparing Maslow (1968c), Bronfenbrenner (1979) Sameroff (2010) and Shonokoff and Philips (2010) all deem environment and contributing factors such as: family and peers as priority. Bronfenbrenner places them on the microsystem and that is where the child develops the knowledge and empathy towards care givers, school and any other educational setting. Bronfenbrenner placed the microsystem at the inner circle closest to the individual, emphasising the importance, similarly Maslow positioned these needs at the bottom of the hierarchy, again supporting Bronfenbrenner, Sameroff, Shonokoff and Philips and how important they are.
The more stressors that are inflicted onto a child where they cohabitate compromises their learning (Science Daily,2017). For a child to feel safe and partake in their own learning they need to live in a stress free and comfortable environment. Four million children live in poverty in the United Kingdom (The Children’s Society, 2017a). The Early Years Foundation Stage allows for early intervention, and to reach out to those hard to reach families including families with teenage parents, families from minority ethnic communities, families where the parents or children are disabled with support (NSPCC, 2015). Support is necessary to ensure children do not live in poverty and everything is being done to support the family by way of introducing help. An illustration of help is free school meals. Department for Education (2017b) state 14.1% of primary school children receive free school meals (FSM). The Children’s Society (2017b) suggest that FSM are a crucial entitlement and having a healthy, hot meal each day enables the child to concentrate and can have a positive impact on classroom behaviour supporting the DfE and the need for FSM to continue.
The coalition government have pledged to end child poverty by 2020 (Poverty and Social Exclusion, 2014), however, one in five children are still going to school hungry (Pells, 2016). Breakfast clubs and after school clubs are an essential part of educating and providing a meal to children who need it. Specifically, looking at breakfast clubs, improved attendance, learning, healthy eating and social development are shown and exemplifies the importance of each educational setting providing one (Yardley, n.d.). Furthermore, breakfast clubs provide an essential role for children who struggle with social development (Children’s Food Trust, 2016). They can form new friendships and develop trusting relationships with staff.
Based on the findings of Yardley (n.d.) it can be argued that breakfast clubs are primarily taken up by families who are receiving universal credits (Low income families) however, those hard to reach families will only use the clubs if trusting relationships are formed with key members of staff.
Parental engagement benefits both the child and the school in turn the child should attend school regularly and the parent will ask for help when needed. A key aspect of early help hubs is the way the agencies work together for maximum impact to support the parent/carer (Hampshire Safeguarding Children’s Board, 2017). Early help hubs provide support for mental health, housing support and many other issues. Moreover, reach out to those parents with the support required that will in turn ensure the child stays safe, healthy, enjoys and achieves, makes a positive contribution and achieve economic wellbeing (Every Child Matters, 2003).
Emotional intelligence is ‘the ability to identify and manage your own emotions and the emotions of others’ (Goleman, 2012). There are many factors that can affect emotional intelligence and brain development, these can occur whilst the brain is developing in the womb. If a mother is addicted or consumes illicit substances or alcohol whilst pregnant it can interfere with the formation of connections between nerve cells in the cerebral cortex, the part of the brain responsible for higher thinking skills and forming memories (Lewis, 2014). Supporting this Lutz (2017) states ‘the neural connections in an area of the brain associated with the regulation of emotion, attention, and various other cognitive processes are critically impaired’. When a child’s brain development is interrupted by lack of interactions, neglect or substance abuse the synapses do not form. In short childhood abuse, neglect and trauma change the brain structure, impacting on behaviour, emotions and social function (Very well, 2017). This is also known as toxic stress (Centre on the Developing Child, 2017). Toxic stress can evidently lead to various complications, the greater the amount of adverse experiences in a child’s life the likelihood this will affect learning and mental health into adulthood. Jigsaw PSHE (2015) is a whole school approach, essentially allowing the children to express any worries, doubts or difficulties they may have. It allows for difficult subjects to be addressed as a class and allows interdependence. Jigsaw can be compared to circle time (Mosley, 1996), allowing the children participating to discuss essential subjects such as cultural differences, promoting positive behaviour, taking turns and learning that we are all different. Collins and Kavanagh (2013) both depict the need for circle time however, suggest that if a facilitator allows the child to pass and not participate it does not allow for the interactions required to increase self-esteem for example self-worth and mental agility.
Similarly, if a child did not see the circle as a safe place it would erode the child’s confidence to participate. More importantly, circle time supports the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC, 1990a) article 12:
‘the child who is capable of forming his or her own views the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child’.
Allowing the child to have full consideration of their views expressed.
When a child feels stress for many reasons such as divorce/separation, poverty, poor housing or lack of food high levels of cortisol are released from the brain. This impedes development of connections in the brain (Brain Facts, 2013). If a child has high levels of cortisol it can affect the application of skills in many ways and can present its self as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). ADHD and other disorders caused by impaired brain development can present themselves at any time. Therefore, early intervention will enable the children to have the building blocks for future success. The Early Year Foundation Stage (EYFS) implement SEL immediately. The Boxall Profile (2015) is an essential aid which can be used when capturing children who may need additional educational support and identify the level of skills children are working at; allowing the educator to better understand what that behaviour is expressing. Furthermore, gain an understanding of what social and emotional skills the individual is lacking; allowing educators to put and additional educational support in place.
Educating children as early as possible with ways to recognise, and identify and manage their own emotions will allow them to self-regulate and build resilience (Claxton, 2010b). In many settings Claxton (2002a), Building Learning Powers (BLP) are used as part of daily SEL to enhance emotional intelligence. They are designed to support and encourage children to be emotionally intelligent, teaching children how to self- regulate and to have empathy and listen to others. BLP ‘cultivate habits and attitudes that enable young people to become better learners; face difficulty and uncertainty calmly, confidently and creatively’ therefore, ‘to become better learners inside and out of school’ (Claxton, 2002). In many settings certificates are awarded to the celebrate the children who are using BLP effectively during lessons, supporting Skinners positive reinforcement (1953). It could be argued that BLP are only as effective as the educator teaching them. Hattie (2009) suggests that an effective teacher must see the learning through the children’s eyes for it to become successful and scaffold the learning as demonstrated by Vygotsky (1978). Scaffolding the learning cultivates habits and cultures which will enable children to reach the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). Similarly, Dwek (2012) has recently pioneered Growth mindset, in settings, teaching people that you can grow your abilities through hard work and effective scaffolding. Therefore, if educators provide the necessary scaffolding through SEL, by equipping children with the skills necessary they should become successful, hardworking and valued members of society.
To conclude, it has been shown how essential social and emotional learning is, not only to the individual but to society. Early intervention is key. When implementing SEL the earlier the implementation, the earlier you are equipping children with the essential skills and knowledge to be able to partake in daily life. In the same way, early intervention is key to children essentially early intervention with families is also vital to eradicate persistent unwanted behaviours. We have focused on Maslow, Bronfenbrenner, Bowlby, Vygotsky and many other theorists; examined the influence their concepts still have on current practise. Evidence has shown that influences such as alcohol and illicit drugs have a detrimental effect on children not only at birth but continue into adulthood; evidence suggests that SEL will support them into confidently taking the right path in life.
Finally, SEL is a compulsory subject however, the amount varies in each setting and this can have a damaging effect on children. ‘It has been shown that children with greater social- emotional competence are more likely to be ready for college, succeed in their careers, have positive relationships and better mental health, and become engaged citizens’ (Claxton, 2012).

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