1.0 Introduction
These quality assurance regulations have been put in place to ensure customers get quality products. Quality is of prime importance in any aspect of business. Customers demand and expect value for money. As producers of apparel there must be a constant endeavour to produce work of good quality in order to maximise the production of goods within the specified tolerances correctly the first time. Also, to achieve a satisfactory design of the fabric or garment in relation to the level of choice in design, styles, colours, suitability of components and fitness of product for the market.
3.0 Total Quality Management
Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management approach focusing on the improvement of quality and performance in all operations, departments, and processes across the company to provide quality services which exceed customer expectations. (Westcott, 2013) Through TQM, companies increase customer satisfaction, reduce costs, and foster team work. Companies can also gain higher returns on sales and investment. The ability to provide quality services allow for higher prices to be charged. Total quality means better access to global markets, greater customer loyalty, wider recognition as a quality brand, etc. (Reynolds, 2013)
The 8 Principles of Quality Management are the foundations that the ISO 9001 certification is built on, developed by ISO/TC 176, an international organisation responsible for maintaining ISO’s quality management standards. For organisations looking to improve their performance, these principles will guide your quality management programme in the right direction. (British Assessment Bureau, 2018)
1. Customer-focused
The customer ultimately determines the level of quality. No matter what an organisation does to foster quality improvement, the customer determines whether the efforts were worthwhile.
2. Total employee involvement
A solid recommendation for those organisations that wish to create an empowering, continuously improving workplace is to involve people as much as possible in all aspects of work decisions and planning. It us a management and leadership philosophy about how people are most enabled to contribute to continuous improvement and the ongoing success of their work organisation.
3. Process-centered
A fundamental part of TQM is a focus on process thinking. A process is a series of steps. The steps required to carry out the process are defined, and performance measures are continuously monitored in order to detect unexpected variation. Following a streamline process reduces the tendency for errors. TQM has an ultimate goal of zero defects. Focusing on process improvement plans helps to achieve this.
4. Integrated system
Following principle Process centred, it is important to have an integrated organisation system that can be modelled for example ISO 9000 or a company quality system for the understanding and handling of the quality of the products or services of an organisation.
Although an organisation may consist of many different functional specialties often organised into vertically structured departments, it is the horizontal processes interconnecting these functions that are the focus of TQM.
Everyone must understand the vision, mission, and guiding principles as well as the quality policies, objectives, and critical processes of the organisation.
An integrated system connects business improvement elements in an attempt to continually improve and exceed the expectations of customers, employees, and other stakeholders.
5. Strategic and systematic approach
A critical part of the management of quality is the strategic and systematic approach to achieving an organisation’s vision, mission, and goals. This process, called strategic planning or strategic management, includes the formulation of a strategic plan that integrates quality as a core component.
6. Continual improvement
Continual process improvement drives an organisation to be both analytical and creative in finding ways to become more competitive and more effective at meeting stakeholder expectations.
7. Fact-based decision making
In order to know how well an organisation is performing, data on performance measures are necessary. TQM requires that an organisation continually collect and analyse data in order to improve decision making accuracy, achieve consensus, and allow prediction based on past history.
8. Communications
During times of organisational change, as well as part of day-to-day operation, effective communications plays a large part in maintaining morale and in motivating employees at all levels. Communications involve strategies, method, and timeliness.
4.0 Method of Assessment
Colour fastness is where the resistance of the colour of textiles is exposed and tested during manufacture to evaluate if the textiles can withstand their subsequent use and frequent or accelerated laundering. They are assessed as fastness ratings.. Visible changes of the textiles such as, change in gloss or shrinkage or surface effects should be reported also. This method may also be used for assessing the colour fastness of dyes as well as the textile.
4.1 Colour Fastness to Washing
Colour fastness to washing is when, a 10 x 4 cm swatch of the coloured fabric is taken and is sandwiched between two adjacent fabric and stitched, (Kiron, 2018) then mechanically agitated under described conditions of time and temperature in a soap solution, then rinsed and dried while in contact with one or two specified adjacent fabrics. The change in colour of the specimen and the staining of the adjacent fabric are assessed with the grey scales.
4.2 Colour Fastness to Water
Colour Fastness to Water test determines the amount of colour a fabric loses when dipped in water. Distilled or deionised water is used in this test method because natural water is variable in composition. (Garments Tech, 2013)
A fabric sample is sewn together with a piece of multi-fibre fabric. It is then immersed in water, drained and placed between two plates under a specific pressure and time in a testing device. Any change in colour of the specimen and staining of the multi-fibre is then assessed with the corresponding grey scales for colour change and staining. (Garments Tech, 2013)
4.3 Colour Fastness to Rubbing
This test is designed to evaluate the degree of colour transfer from the textile surface to another surface by rubbing. It is applicable to textile made from all fibres in the form of yarn or fabric whether dyed, printed or otherwise coloured.
During the test, a white conditioned rubbing cloth would be rubbing on the test specimen, back and forth in a straight line for 10 cycles with downward force. Usually, two tests would be made, one with a dry rubbing cloth and another with a wet one. (Li, 2016)
The tested rubbing cloth will then be evaluated against the grey scale under a light source.
Test Procedure
Dry Rubbing
- Use the holding clamp to mount the specimen on the baseboard of the Crockmeter. The long direction of the specimen is parallel to the track of rubbing. Ensure the specimen lays flat on the baseboard.
- Two tests are performed, one along the direction of the warp/length and the other of the weft/width.
- Mount a dry rubbing cloth flat over the end of the peg on the Crockmeter and hold it taut by means of the spring clip provided. Ensure that the rubbing cloth is not placed on the diagonal in the direction that the peg is moving.
- Rest the finger on the specimen, ensuring that the spring clip is not in contact with the test specimen.
- Rub the specimen back and forth over a straight track 100mm + 8mm long for 10 complete cycles (i.e. 10 times back and forth) at a rate of 1 second for each cycle.
- It may be necessary to stretch some fabrics on to the base of the Crockmeter, to prevent the fabric from rucking up.
Wet Rubbing
- Wet out a rubbing cloth with distilled/deionised water to have about 100% pick up. A suitable method is as follows, however any method where the rubbing cloth picks up its own mass in water is acceptable.
- It is important to understand the quality of water used here. As per standards, Grade 3 water is a must.
- Weigh the dry rubbing cloth and then thoroughly wet out in distilled/de-ionised water, squeeze the wet rubbing cloth between blotting paper and re-weigh on the balance. Make adjustments as necessary by either blotting off more water or re-wetting.
- Use the following method to calculate 100% pick up of water – original weight of rubbing cloth x 2 (65% in AATCC method)
- Carry out the appropriate test as the procedure for dry rubbing.
- Allow the tested rubbing cloth to dry at room temperature.
(Texanlab.com, 2018)
4.4 Dimensional Stability to Washing
Dimensional stability is the vital characteristics of a fabric. It is required to confirm about the dimensional stability of a dyed fabric. The measured dimensional stability of a fabric determines whether a fabric has the potential to retain its original shape and remain stable, indicating it will not shrink, when applied over a substrate, and its suitability for a specified use. (Islam, 2018)
5.0 Tensile Strength, Tearing Strength, Pilling and Martindale Abrasion
5.1 Tensile Strength
To determine the breaking force of a specific width of woven fabric the ravelled strip procedure is generally used, whereas, the cut strip test is generally used for determining the breaking strength of non woven fabrics, felted fabrics, and dipped or coated fabrics. (O’Fallon, 2018)
Five fabric samples are extended in a direction parallel to the warp and five parallel to the weft.
The specimens are cut to a size of 2.5 inch in width and then removing threads from both edges until the width has been reduced to 2 inch.
The test length should be 8 inch between the jaws and so enough extra length must be allowed for gripping in the jaws.
Under optimum conditions, the specimen will be mounted centrally. Security gripped along the full width to prevent slipping.
The load is applied uniformly across the full specimen width till the specimen tear out.
If a test specimen breaks within 0.25 inch of the line of contact of either of the pairs of jaws at a load less than the average of normal breaks, the result should not be used in calculation.
(Shimo, 2017)
5.2 Tearing Strength
Tear strength is the strength required to start or continue the tear in a fabric under specific condition & tearing force is the required to continue a tear previously started in a fabric. The tear resistance test on fabrics or tear strength is measured to check how the material can withstand the effects of tearing or cuts when in tension. (Faruk, 2018)
Tear resistance is the measurement of a sample’s ability to resist tearing. Tear strength is usually the maximum load divided by the thickness of the material. (Jlwinstruments.com, 2018)
5.3 Pilling
Determines the resistance to the formation of pills and other related surface changes of textile fabrics using the random tumble pilling tester.(Geis, 2018)
- Specimens are laundered 3 times and then conditioned in atmospheric conditions for textiles
- The edges of 3 4”x4” squares cut on the bias are sealed with glue and allowed to dry
- The 3 specimens are placed in the pilling chamber along with 25mg of gray-dyed cotton fiber and tumbled for 30 minutes
- The specimens are evaluated in a viewing apparatus against photographic standards (ASTM ADJD 3512) or in house fabric standards (Geis, 2018)
5.4 Martindale Abrasion
The Martindale test is a measure of the durability of a fabric. The tests are undertaken on upholstery fabrics to check their suitability for various uses – i.e. decorative chairs, heavy-traffic areas or commercial furniture. The test is also known as the ‘rub test’, and tests for abrasion resistance.
It consists of four testing plates on which the abrading fabrics is attached, these four testing table are mounted on the base plate of the instrument. There is revolving plate, which revolves with the help of three cranks, pegs & motor. There are four sleeves attached on the revolving plate. The sample holders for abrasion & pilling testing are provided with the instrument. There is a set of weights for proper pressure on the test specimens. Templates for cutting the samples & abrading cloth and their mallet are also supplied as standard accessory.
http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2015/10/working-process-of-martindale-abrasion.html
The end point is reached when two yarn breaks occur or when there is a change in shade or appearance that is sufficient to cause a customer to complain. Shade change is assessed as the AATCC gray scale rating of 3 or lower. The samples should be checked every 5,000 cycles, and when an end point is reached because of failure, the rater should back up to the previous 5,000 cycles checkpoint as the test result of abrasion resistance. The test results are therefore to be reported in 5,000 cycles rub increments.
http://www.saudereducation.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Abrasion-Resistance.pdf
This test method covers the determination of the abrasion resistance of textile fabrics. Fabrics of all types may be tested by this method, including woven, non-woven, and knit apparel fabrics, household fabrics, industrial fabrics, and floor coverings, but difficulties may arise with fabrics with a pile depth greater than 2mm.
https://tapp.uni.edu/pdf%20files/Abrasion%20Resistance%20-%20Martindale.pdf
6.0 Wearer Trial System
Feedback from industry had confirmed that wearer trials provide valuable insights into effects of the wearing process on garments to complement insights from wash cycle tests.
Wearer trials are designed to be conducted for substantially longer than the 50 hour trials commonly used by many retailers and brands, in order to assess the ‘normal’ life- expectancy of a garment. Used products are compared against a control garment at the end of the trial.
Wearers are issued with garments and supporting documentation to complete, which included specified care label instructions to follow. Wearers are required to complete information on the hours of wear each day. Including, method of washing and drying and frequency of washes, descriptions of the condition of the garment before washing, after the first wash and also after 50 hours of wear. Garments are returned to the research team at 50 hour intervals, whenever possible, and visual assessments against a control garment and dimensional checks undertaken. (Bureauveritas, 2018)
Information required from a Wearer Trial documentation would normally be:
• Record database of wearer details
• Size normally purchased (measurements lingerie)
• Age – children
• Height – weight (babies)
• Occupation – walker/sitter
• Sports activities
• Personal dislikes – colours/fibres/clothes types
• Test requirements – how to be worn & washed
• Issues quantity of products – 5 + control – + all same colour
• Cover size range
• Control garment
• Specify no. of washes + amount of hours to be worn
(Bureauveritas, 2018)
Wearer Trial Process and Development:
• Initial wearer trial – Development stage – new fabrics/trims
• 1st wearer trial – Initial sealing process – 50 hours
• Fit tests
• Pre – production pilot run – Main wearer trial – 50-100 hours
• Production seals
• Bulk production
• Identify each wearer trial with indelible laundry marker on sew in label. Tag non labelled items.
• Check garments for general assembly
• Measure each garment exactly to specification – record measurements & position
• Retain control sample, label & secure
7.0 BS6001 Part 1 1991 AQL inspection system
BS 6001-1999+A1:2011 is a British Standard that outlines sampling specifications to give guidance on the maximum defects allowed during an acceptance inspection. (Bsigroup, 2018)
BS 6001-1 is the acceptance sampling specification for inspection by attributes. It highlights practical quality control methods to help users approve products during the manufacturing process. By complying with this standard, organisations can build confidence in their products’ quality assurance and improve customer-supplier relationships. (Bsigroup, 2018)
BS 6001-1 first looks at the expression of non-conformity, before defining the acceptance quality limit of products. It then explains the submission of products for sampling, the drawing of samples and all the aspects that should be taken into account during normal, tightened and reduced inspection. The standard also gives a rundown of sampling methods and plans, and takes an in-depth look at the determination of acceptability. (Bsigroup, 2018)
8.0 Ethical Trading Initiative
Ethical trade means that retailers, brands and suppliers take responsibility for improving the working conditions of people who make the products they sell. (Control Union, 2018) The ETI is based on the principle of incorporating internationally-agreed standards into codes of labour practice. ETI member companies are committed to adopting codes based on these standards, and to moving to the demonstrable implementation of their codes.
The Principles of Implementation define the commitments, management practices and behaviours required of corporate members to implement the ETI Base Code in their supply chains. (Control Union, 2018)
The ETI Base Code
1. EMPLOYMENT IS FREELY CHOSEN
There is no forced, bonded or involuntary prison labour. Workers are not required to lodge “deposits” or their identity papers with their employer and are free to leave their employer after reasonable notice.
2.FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION AND THE RIGHT TO COLLECTIVE BARGAINING ARE RESPECTED
Workers, without distinction, have the right to join or form trade unions of their own choosing and to bargain collectively. The employer adopts an open attitude towards the activities of trade unions and their organisational activities.
Workers representatives are not discriminated against and have access to carry out their representative functions in the workplace. Where the right to freedom of association and collective bargaining is restricted under law, the employer facilitates, and does not hinder, the development of parallel means for independent and free association and bargaining.
3.WORKING CONDITIONS ARE SAFE AND HYGIENIC
A safe and hygienic working environment shall be provided, bearing in mind the prevailing knowledge of the industry and of any specific hazards. Adequate steps shall be taken to prevent accidents and injury to health arising out of, associated with, or occurring in the course of work, by minimising, so far as is reasonably practicable, the causes of hazards inherent in the working environment.
Workers shall receive regular and recorded health and safety training, and such training shall be repeated for new or reassigned workers.
Access to clean toilet facilities and to potable water, and, if appropriate, sanitary facilities for food storage shall be provided. Accommodation, where provided, shall be clean, safe, and meet the basic needs of the workers.
The company observing the code shall assign responsibility for health and safety to a senior management representative.
4. CHILD LABOUR SHALL NOT BE USED
There shall be no new recruitment of child labour.
Companies shall develop or participate in and contribute to policies and programmes which provide for the transition of any child found to be performing child labour to enable her or him to attend and remain in quality education until no longer a child; “child” and “child labour” being defined in the appendices.
Children and young persons under 18 shall not be employed at night or in hazardous conditions.
5. LIVING WAGES ARE PAID
Wages and benefits paid for a standard working week meet, at a minimum, national legal standards or industry benchmark standards, whichever is higher. In any event wages should always be enough to meet basic needs and to provide some discretionary income.
All workers shall be provided with written and understandable Information about their employment conditions in respect to wages before they enter employment and about the particulars of their wages for the pay period concerned each time that they are paid.
Deductions from wages as a disciplinary measure shall not be permitted nor shall any deductions from wages not provided for by national law be permitted without the expressed permission of the worker concerned. All disciplinary measures should be recorded.
6. WORKING HOURS ARE NOT EXCESSIVE
Working hours comply with national laws and benchmark industry standards, whichever affords greater protection.
In any event, workers shall not on a regular basis be required to work in excess of 48 hours per week and shall be provided with at least one day off for every 7 day period on average. Overtime shall be voluntary, shall not exceed 12 hours per week, shall not be demanded on a regular basis and shall always be compensated at a premium rate.
7. NO DISCRIMINATION IS PRACTISED
There is no discrimination in hiring, compensation, access to training, promotion, termination or retirement based on race, caste, national origin, religion, age, disability, gender, marital status, sexual orientation, union membership or political affiliation.
8.
REGULAR EMPLOYMENT IS PROVIDED
8.1
To every extent possible work performed must be on the basis of recognised employment relationship established through national law and practice.
8.2
Obligations to employees under labour or social security laws and regulations arising from the regular employment relationship shall not be avoided through the use of labour-only contracting, sub- contracting, or home-working arrangements, or through apprenticeship schemes where there is no real intent to impart skills or provide regular employment, nor shall any such obligations be avoided through the excessive use of fixed-term contracts of employment.
9. NO HARSH OR INHUMANE TREATMENT IS ALLOWED
Physical abuse or discipline, the threat of physical abuse, sexual or other harassment and verbal abuse or other forms of intimidation shall be prohibited.
9.0 Bibliography
- British Assessment Bureau (2018). The 8 Principles of Quality Management |. [online] The British Assessment Bureau. Available at: https://www.british-assessment.co.uk/guides/the-8-principles-of-quality-management/ [Accessed 15 Oct. 2018].
- Control Union. (2018). ETI – Ethical Trading Initiative – Certifications. [online] Available at: https://certifications.controlunion.com/en/certification-programs/certification-programs/eti-ethical-trading-initiative [Accessed 21 Oct. 2018].
- Faruk, M. (2018). Fabric Tearing Strength Test. [online] Textile Study Center. Available at: https://textilestudycenter.com/fabric-tearing-strength-test/ [Accessed 10 Oct. 2018].
- Garments Tech. (2013). Colourfastness to Water test procedure. « Garments Tech. [online] Available at: http://garmentstech.com/colourfastness-to-water-test-procedure/ [Accessed 10 Oct. 2018].
- Geis, J. (2018). Pilling Resistance Testing of Textile Fabrics Using ASTM and AATCC. [online] Manufacturingsolutionscenter.org. Available at: http://www.manufacturingsolutionscenter.org/pilling-resistance-testing.html [Accessed 10 Oct. 2018].
- Islam, A. (2018). Dimensional Stability to Washing. [online] Textilelearner.blogspot.com. Available at: http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2014/03/dimensional-stability-to-washing.html [Accessed 10 Oct. 2018].
- Jlwinstruments.com. (2018). Tear Resistance Testing :: JLW Instruments. [online] Available at: http://www.jlwinstruments.com/products/test-solutions/tear-resistance-testing/ [Accessed 10 Oct. 2018].
- Kiron, M. (2018). Washing Fastness Test | Wash Fastness | Description of Washing Fastness | Types of Washing Fastness. [online] Textilelearner.blogspot.com. Available at: http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2011/07/washing-fastness-wash-fastness_2980.html [Accessed 12 Oct. 2018].
- Li, B. (2016). Color Fastness to Crocking/Rubbing Test, ISO 105 X12 (With Video) | Orient | Your Reliable Bag Manufacturer Since 1983 | China. [online] Orient | Your Reliable Bag Manufacturer Since 1983 | China. Available at: https://www.orientbag.net/single-post/2016/09/26/Color-Fastness-to-CrockingRubbing-Test-ISO-105-X12-With-Video [Accessed 10 Oct. 2018].
- O’Fallon, J. (2018). Textile Fabric Strip Test Method. [online] Testresources.net. Available at: https://www.testresources.net/applications/test-types/tensile-test/textile-fabric-strip-test-method/ [Accessed 10 Oct. 2018].
- Reynolds, P. (2013). Principles of Total Quality Management (TQM) – Etech Global Services. [online] Etech Global Services. Available at: https://www.etechgs.com/blog/principles-total-quality-management-tqm/ [Accessed 10 Oct. 2018].
- Shimo, S. (2017). Fabric Tensile Strength Test | Strip Strength Test | Grab strength test | Tearing strength test | Elmendorf Tear Test | Bursting strength. [online] Textile Study Center. Available at: https://textilestudycenter.com/fabric-tensile-strength-test/ [Accessed 10 Oct. 2018].
- Shop.bsigroup.com. (2018). BS 6001-1:1999+A1:2011 (ISO 2859-1:1999) Sampling procedures for inspection by attributes. Sampling schemes indexed by acceptance quality limit (AQL) for lot-by-lot inspection. [online] Available at: https://shop.bsigroup.com/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030219543 [Accessed 10 Oct. 2018].
- Texanlab.com. (2018). [online] Available at: http://www.texanlab.com/documents/downloads/4.pdf [Accessed 10 Oct. 2018].
- Westcott, R. (2013). The certified manager of quality/organizational excellence handbook. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: ASQ Quality Press, pp.291-292.
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