Essay: Radio-Frequency Identification

ABSTRACT
To find easily an unoccupied parking space is a problem. During the last four-decade, there are many parking models developed. But still there is need for proper and secure solution. Secondly, security of vehicle is essential. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology is very useful technology in automation of vehicle parking system in mall/building. One of the challenging problems for many vehicle owners in big cities is where to park their vehicles. If the parking slot is known in advance one can save precious time and fuel wastage. In our proposed system the user is informed about the parking slot availability at a parking location .The slot availability details are collected using an RFID system and are updated periodically into the database. This project is especially designing for private parking space. So, the user must have a unique card before they can enter the parking space. Some examples of application for this system are at exclusive club, buildings and any private place. This parking problem can be solving using RFID technology. Presented here is an automatic vehicle parking system using AT89S52 microcontroller.

CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is an automatic identification method where in the data stored on RFID tags or transponder is remotely retrieved. The RFID tag is a device that can be attached to or incorporated into a product, animal or person for identification and tracking using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away, beyond the line of sight of the reader. RFID technology is used in vehicle parking systems of malls and buildings. The system normally consists of a vehicle counter, sensors, display board, gate controller, RFID tags and RFID reader. Presented here is an automatic vehicle parking system using AT89S52 microcontroller. It work like this when some vehicle come to the gate, sensor detect it and LCD display the message you can display RFID tag to the RFID reader, when it is a valid card it will open the gate for pass you car and close after some time, LCD detected 100 Rs and balance is display on the LCD, if you have no balance it will force you to charge your card. After paying card is charged. It also display total numbers of vehicles are stand less if car is goes out.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO RFID

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is an automatic identification method, relying on storing and remotely retrieving data using devices called RFID tags or transponders. The technology requires some extent of cooperation of an RFID reader and an RFID tag.
An RFID tag is an object that can be applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification and tracking using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader.

1.2.1What is RFID
A basic RFID system consists of three components:
‘ An antenna or coil
‘ A transceiver (with decoder)
‘ A transponder (RF tag)
Electronically programmed with unique information. There are many different types of RFID systems out in the market. They are categorized according to there frequency ranges. Some of the most commonly used RFID kits are as follows:
1)Low-frequency (30 KHz to 500 KHz)
2) Mid-Frequency (900KHz to 1500MHz)
3) High Frequency (2.4GHz to 2.5GHz)
These frequency ranges mostly tell the RF ranges of the tags from low frequency tag ranging from 3m to 5m, mid-frequency ranging from 5m to 17m and high frequency ranging from 5ft to 90ft. The cost of the system is based according to there ranges with low-frequency system ranging from a few hundred dollars to a high-frequency system ranging somewhere near 5000 dollars.
1.2.2 COMPONENTS OF RFID

A basic RFID system consist of three components:
‘ An antenna or coil
‘ A transceiver (with decoder)
‘ A transponder (RF tag) electronically programmed with unique information

Figure1.1: Rfid structure

Component description:
Antenna:
The antenna emits radio signals to activate the tag and read and write data to it. Antennas
are the conduits between the tag and the transceiver, which controls the system’s data acquisition and communication. Antennas are available in a variety of shapes and sizes; they can be built into a door frame to receive tag data from persons or things passing through the door, or mounted on an interstate tollbooth to monitor traffic passing by on afreeway. The electromagnetic field produced by an antenna can be constantly presentwhen multiple tags are expected continually. If constant interrogation is not required, asensor device can activate the field.Often the antenna is packaged with the transceiver and decoder to become a reader (a.k.a.interrogator), which can be configured either as a handheld or a fixed-mount device. The reader emits radio waves in ranges of anywhere from one inch to 100 feet or more, depending upon its power output and the radio frequency used. When an RFID tag passes through the electromagnetic zone, it detects the reader’s activation signal. The reader decodes the data encoded in the tag’s integrated circuit (silicon chip) and the data is passed to the host computer for processing.
TAGS (Transponders):

Figur1.2: Rfid tag
An RFID tag is comprised of a microchip containing identifying information and an antenna that transmits this data wirelessly to a reader. At its most basic, the chip will containserialized identifier, or license plate number, that uniquely identifies that item, similar to the way many bar codes are used today. A key difference, however is that RFID tags have a higher data capacity than their bar code counterparts. This increases the options for the type of information that can be encoded on the tag, including the manufacturer, batch or lot number, weight, ownership, destination and history (such as the temperature range to which an item has been exposed). In fact, an unlimited list of other types of information can be stored on RFID tags, depending on application needs. An RFID tag can be placed on individual items, cases or pallets for identification purposes, as well as on fixed assets such as trailers, containers, totes, etc.Tags come in a variety of types, with a variety of capabilities. Key variables include:"Read-only" versus "read-write"
There are three options in terms of how data can be encoded on tags. (1) Read-only tags contain data such as a serialized tracking number, which is pre-written onto them by the tag manufacturer or distributor. These are generally the least expensive tags because they cannot have any additional information included as they move throughout the supply chain. Any updates to that information would have to be maintained in the application software that tracks SKU movement and activity. (2) "Write once" tags enable a user to write data to the tag one time in production or distribution processes. Again, this may include a serial number, but perhaps other data such as a lot or batch number. (3) Full"read-write" tags allow new data to be written to the tag as need and even written over the original data. Examples for the latter capability might include the time and date of ownership transfer or updating the repair history of a fixed asset. While these are the most costly of the three tag types and are not practical for tracking inexpensive items, future standards for electronic product codes (EPC) appear to be headed in this direction
Data capacity:
The amount of data storage on a tag can vary, ranging from 16 bits on the low end to as much as several thousand bits on the high end. obviously, the greater the storage capacity, the higher the price per tag.
Frequencies:
Like all wireless communications, there are a variety of frequencies or spectra through which RFID tags can communicate with readers. Again, there are trade-offs among cost, performance and application requirements. For instance, low- penetrate non-metallic substances. They are ideal for scanning objects with high water content, such as fruit, at close range. UHF frequencies typically offer better range and can transfer data faster. But they use more power and are less likely to pass through some materials. UHF tags are typically best suited for use with or near wood, paper, cardboard or clothing products. Compared to low-frequency tags, UHF tags might be better for scanning boxes of goods as they pass through a bay door into a warehouse. While the tag requirements for compliance mandates may be narrowly defined, it is likely that a variety of tag types will be required to solve specific operational issues. You will want to work with a F company that is very knowledgeable in tag and reader technology to appropriately identify the right mix o RFID technology for your environment and applications.
RF Transceiver:
The RF transceiver is the source of the RF energy used to activate and power the passive RFID tags.The RF transceiver may be enclosed in the same cabinet as the reader or it may be a separate piece of equipment.When provided as a separate piece of equipment, the transceiver is commonly referred to as an RF module. The RF transceiver controls and modulates the radio frequencies that the antenna transmits and receives. The transceiver filters and amplifies the backscatter signal from a passive RFID tag.

Figure1.3: Rfid communication

Typical Applications for RFID
‘ Automatic Vehicle identification
‘ Inventory Management
‘ Work-in-Process
‘ Container/ Yard Management
‘ Document/ Jewellery tracking
‘ Patient Monitoring

The Advantages of RFID Over Bar Coding
No "line of sight" requirements: Bar code reads can sometimes be limited or problematic due to the need to have a direct "line of sight" between a scanner and a bar code. RFID tags can be read through materials without line of sight.
More automated reading: RFID tags can be read automatically when a tagged product comes past or near a reader, reducing the labor required to scan product and allowing more proactive, real-time tracking.
Improved read rates: RFID tags ultimately offer the promise of higher read rates than barcodes, especially in high-speed operations such as carton sortation.
Greater data capacity: RFID tags can be easily encoded with item details such as lot and batch, weight, etc.
"Write" capabilities: Because RFID tags can be rewritten with new data as supply chain activities are completed, tagged products carry updated information as they move throughout the supply chain.
Conclusion:
In this chapter we understand the problems of parking system in cities and we decided RFID based parking system which can solve the parking problem. then we study about all information of RFID module.

CHAPTER-2
PROJECT DESIGN
2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure2.1: Block diagram

Figure 2.1 shows the block diagram of the RFID-based automatic vehicle parking system. To get started with RFID-based automatic vehicle parking system, the vehicle owner has to first register the vehicle with the parking owner and get the RFID tag.When the car has to be parked, the RFID tag is placed near the RFID reader, which is installed near the entry gate of the parking lot. As soon as the RFID tag is read by the reader, the system automatically deducts the specified amount from the RFID tag and the entry gate boomer opens to allow the. Car inside the parking area. At the same time, the parking counters increments by one. Similarly, the door is opened at the exit gate and the parking counter decremented. The system also offers the facility to recharge the amount for each RFID tag. No manual processing is involved. In addition, the system provides security.

1. Writing into the tag:
By making use of the write capability of the RFID reader, RFID tag is embedded with unique identification code and is assigned to a car. The tag contains distinct information about the car, like employee ID number or name or any other distinct data. This step accomplishes the data feed to the tag. This is similar to embedding information on a magnetic strip and the process is called writing.

2. Reading from the tag:
The information from the tag needs to be read during the car parking. In this step, the data is read from the tag with the help of an RFID reader.

3. Data feed to the microcontroller:
The data from the RFID reader has to be transferred to the microcontroller for the actual comparison of data and further processes. During this phase the data from the RfID reader is fed to the microcontroller using RS232 or UART media.

4. Tracking the count:
To properly utilize the parking lot, the number of the cars presented in the parking lot needs to be tracked. This is done using the microcontroller where the number of cars in the parking lot is incremented for every car entering the lot and is decremented for every car leaving the lot.

2.2 Flow Chart

Figure2.2: flow chart

2.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure2.3: Circuit diagram

2.4 WORKING
Figure 2.3 shows the circuit of the RFID based automatic vehicle parking system.The circuit can be divided into different sections:

Power supply
Connector CON1, diodes D1 through D4,capacitor C1, and voltage regulator ICs 7805 (IC1) and 7812 (IC2) form the power supply section of the automatic vehicle parking system. CON1 is a two-pin connector that provides 15V AC or DC power supply to the circuit. In case of 15V AC, diodes D1 through D4 form a bridge rectifier to rectify the AC supply. Capacitor C1 filters out the ripples from the rectified output.Ics 7805 and 7812 provide regulated +5V and +12V, respectively, to the circuit. +5V is used to operate the microcontroller, LCD, RFID and IR sensor circuit and +12V operates the motor.

AT89S52 microcontroller

AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8kB Flash memory. It is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pin-out.
The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. Other features include 256 bytes of RAM, 32 input/output lines, watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timers/ counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full-duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry.

Connectors CON2 through CON4

CON2 and CON3 are two-pin connectors to the circuit for controlling the entry and exit gate boomers. CON4 is a four pin connector that connect the 12V DC motors.single pin connector connects the RFID reader module to the circuit.

L293D motor driver

H-bridge DC motor driver L293D (IC5) operates the DC motors to open the door or barrier
for entry into and exit from the parking lot. Two high-current motor drivers can be used in place of L293D and 12V DC motors to control the entry and exit gates, respectively.

LM358 opamp

Dual-operational amplifier LM358 (IC4) is used as a voltage comparator to compare the output of the IR sensors with a fixed threshold voltage in order to know whether the IR beam is interrupted or not.

IR transmitter and receiver

Two IR transmitter-receiver pairs are used. The IR LEDs are connected in forward-biased condition to the +5V power supply through 220-ohm resistors. These emit IR light, which is interrupted when an object comes into its way to the IR receiver. The IR receiving photodiodes are connected in reverse-biased condition to +5V power supply through 1-mega-ohm resistors. When the IR light falls on the photodiodes, their resistance changes and so does their output.
This output is compared with a fixed voltage to give a digital output to the microcontroller in order to judge the entry and exit of the vehicles.

LCD display

LCD1 is a two-line,16-character, alpha-numeric liquid crystal display. Data lines D0 through
D7 of the LCD are connected to port 2 of AT89S52 (IC3). Reset (RS) and enable(E) control lines are connected to port pins P3.6 and P3.7, respectively. Control lines control data flow from
the microcontroller to LCD1. When power is switched on, LED1 glows to indicate the presence
of power in the circuit and LED2 glows to indicate the presence of RID reader. Simultaneously, the ‘ADVANCE VEHICLE PARKING SYSTEM’ message is displayed on LCD1 along with a short beep from piezobuzzer PZ1.Transistor BC547 drives the buzzer. Pin details of 7805, 7812 and BC547 are shown in Fig2.3 When a car crosses the IR LED1-D1 pair installed at the entry gate, the gate boomer does not open until an RID tag is placed near the rid reader. After the tag is placed near the reader, the gate boomer opens for three seconds and closes automatically. If the initial recharge amount was Rs 900, the LCD display shows ‘Vehicle1 Amount’ in the first line and ‘Deducted 100’ in the second line, followed by ‘Balance Amount’ in the first line and ‘800’ in the second line. It is then followed by display of ‘Number of Cars’ in the first line and ‘001’ in the second line. If the parking lot is full, the message ‘Parking is Full, Sorry for Inconvenience’ is displayed on LCD1. When a car leaves the parking area and crosses the IR beam between IR LED2 and D2 at the exit gate, the vehicle count decreases by one. The LCD shows the number of cars in the parking lot along with ‘Thanks for Visiting’ message.

2.5 Proteus Simulation:
Proteus:
The Proteus Design Suite combines schematic capture, SPICE circuit simulation,and PCB design to make a complete electronics design system. Add to that the ability to simulate popular micro-controllers running your actual firmware, and you have a package that can dramatically reduce your development time when compared with a traditional embedded design process.
System Components:
ISIS Schematic Capture an easy to use yet extremely powerful tool for entering your designs.PROSPICE Mixed mode SPICE simulation industry standard SPICE3F5 simulator combined with high speed digital simulator. ARES PCB Layout ‘ high performance PCB designsystem with automatic component placer, rip-up and retry auto-router and interactive design rule checking.VSM – Virtual SystemModelling lets you cosimulate embedded softwarefor popular micro-controllers alongside your hardware design.
System benefits:
Integrated package with common user interface and fully context sensitive help make for a quick and easylearning process.

Figure2.4: proteus simulation

The simulation is done in proteus software.
In idle condition it will display the messag ‘ ADVANCE VEHICLE PARKING SYSTEM ‘.
When vehicle is park in parking place it deduct the amount and display the number of car in parking place.

Figure2.5: proteus simulation

Figure2.6: proteus simulation
If the parking is full it will display the message ‘parking is full sorry for inconv’ and it can’t open the entry gate until the counter is not decrement.

2.6 PCB layout:
Express PCB:
ExpressPCB is a very easy to use Windows application for laying out printed circuit boards.
Expess pcb contain Express pcb and Express schematic for drawing the schematic of circuit.

Figure2.7: Pcb layout
Pcb layout of the parking system is create in express pcb . this is the actual size of pcb layout.
CONCLUSION:
In this chapter we design the hardware and done the simulation in proteus and getting the desired output in proteus and we design the pcb layout of our project in express pcb.

CHAPTER 3
Softwear description and expected outcome
3.1. KEIL 3 SOFTWARE
Keil Software to provide you with software development tools for 8051 based microcontrollers. With the Keil tools, you can generate embedded applications for virtually every 8051 derivative. The supported microcontrollers are listed in the ??Vision Device Database’. The Keil Software 8051 development tools are designed for the professional software developer, but any level of programmer can use them to get the most out of the 8051 microcontroller architecture.
Keil software converts the C-codes into the Intel Hex code.

Figure3.1:(Keil output window)

PRO51 BURNER SOFTWARE
PRO51 BURNER provides you with software burning tools for 8051 based Microcontrollers in their Flash memory. The 51 BURNER tools, you can burn AT89C/SXXXX series of ATMEL microcontrollers.

PROGRAM:

#include<reg52.h>
#include<string.h>
sbit START_POINT=P1^3;
sbit TERMINATE_POINT=P1^4;
sbit START_POINT1=P1^5;
sbit TERMINATE_POINT1=P1^6;
sbit S1=P3^2;
sbit S2=P3^3;
sbit rc1=P1^1;
sbit rc2=P1^2;
sbit BUZZPORT=P1^7;
sbit RS=P3^7;
sbit EN=P3^6;

void lcdinit();
void lcdData(unsigned char l);
void lcdcmd(unsigned char k);
void buzzer(unsigned int time);
void DelayMs(unsigned int count);
void display(unsigned char s,t,u);
void Welcome(unsigned char c[],unsigned char d[]);
void ConvertAndDisplay(unsigned int value1,unsigned char c[]);
void dcMotor();
void dcMotor1();

void main()
{
unsigned char i=0,j=0,result=0;
unsigned int count;
unsigned char c[15];
unsigned char d[12]="343840805201";

signed int amount2=900;

TMOD=0x20;
TH1=0xFD;
SCON=0X50;
TR1=1;

S1=1;
S2=1;

BUZZPORT=0;
START_POINT=0;
TERMINATE_POINT=0;

lcdinit();
Welcome("ADVANCE VEHICLE","PARKING SYSTEM");
buzzer(1000);
DelayMs(1000);

while(1)
{
known:
while(S1==1 && S2==1);

if(S2==0)
{
while(S2==0);
if(count>0)
{
count–;

ConvertAndDisplay(count,"Thanks for Visit");
dcMotor1();

DelayMs(1000);

goto known;

}
else
{
count=0;
ConvertAndDisplay(count,"Thanks for Visit");

DelayMs(1000);

goto known;

}

}

if(S1==0)
{
while(S1==0);
for(i=0;i<12;i++)
{
c[i]=0xFF;
}

while(RI==0);

for(i=0;i<12;i++)
{
j=0;
while(RI==0)
{
if(j>=1000)
goto timeout;
DelayMs(1);
j++;
}
c[i]=SBUF;
RI=0;
}
timeout:

i=strncmp(c,d,10);
if(i==0 && count<10)
{
lcdinit();

Welcome("VEHICAL1 Amount ","Detected:100");
DelayMs(1000);
amount2-=100;
if(amount2>0)
{
ConvertAndDisplay(amount2,"Balance Amount");
dcMotor();
}
else
{
amount2=0;
Welcome("VEHICAL1 Amount ","BALANCE NIL");
buzzer(1000);
Welcome("Recharge Your","Card Please");
while(rc1==1&&rc2==1);
{ if(rc1==0)
{
while(rc1==0);
amount2=900;
Welcome("Cardis recharged","with amount 900");
}
if(rc2==0)
{
while(rc2==0);
amount2=500;
Welcome("Card is recharged","with amount 500");
}
}
}
if(amount2==400)
{
Welcome("VEHICAL1 Amount ","BALANCE LOW");
buzzer(200);

}
DelayMs(1000);
count++;
lcdcmd(0x01);
DelayMs(10);
ConvertAndDisplay(count,"Number of Cars");
goto known;
}
else
{
if(i==0)
{
Welcome("Parking is Full","Sorry for Inconvenience");
buzzer(1000);
DelayMs(1000);
goto known;
}
else
{
Welcome("unregistered","please register");
buzzer(1000);
DelayMs(1000);
goto known;
}

}
}
}
}

void Welcome(unsigned char c[],unsigned char d[])
{
unsigned int i=0;

lcdcmd(0x01);
DelayMs(10);
lcdcmd(0x80);
DelayMs(10);

i=0;
while(c[i]!=’’)
{
lcdData(c[i]);
i++;
}

lcdcmd(0xc0);
DelayMs(10);

i=0;
while(d[i]!=’’)
{
lcdData(d[i]);
i++;
}
}

void ConvertAndDisplay(unsigned int value1,unsigned char c[])
{
unsigned int i,a=0,j;
unsigned char d1,d2,d3;
for(i=0;i<value1;i++)
a=a+1;
lcdcmd(0x01);
DelayMs(10);
lcdcmd(0x80);
DelayMs(10);

j=0;
while(c[j]!=’’)
{
lcdData(c[j]);
j++;
}
d1=a%10;
a=a/10;
d2=a%10;
a=a/10;
d3=a%10;

lcdcmd(0xc0);
DelayMs(10);

display(d1,d2,d3);
}

void lcdinit(void)
{
lcdcmd(0x38);
DelayMs(250);
lcdcmd(0x0E);
DelayMs(250);
lcdcmd(0x01);
DelayMs(250);
lcdcmd(0x06);
DelayMs(250);
lcdcmd(0x80);
DelayMs(250);
}

void lcdData(unsigned char l)
{
P2=l;
RS=1;
EN=1;
DelayMs(1);
EN=0;
return;
}

void lcdcmd(unsigned char k)
{
P2=k;
RS=0;
EN=1;
DelayMs(1);
EN=0;
return;

}

void DelayMs(unsigned int count)
{
unsigned int i;
while(count)
{
i = 115;
while(i>0)
i–;
count–;
}
}

void dcMotor()
{
START_POINT=0;
TERMINATE_POINT=1;
DelayMs(400);
START_POINT=0;
TERMINATE_POINT=0;
DelayMs(2000);
START_POINT=1;
TERMINATE_POINT=0;
DelayMs(400);
START_POINT=0;
TERMINATE_POINT=0;
}
void dcMotor1()
{
START_POINT1=1;
TERMINATE_POINT1=0;
DelayMs(400);
START_POINT1=0;
TERMINATE_POINT1=0;
DelayMs(2000);
START_POINT1=0;
TERMINATE_POINT1=1;
DelayMs(400);
START_POINT1=0;
TERMINATE_POINT1=0;
}

void display(unsigned char s,t,u)
{
s=s+0x30;
t=t+0x30;
u=u+0x30;
DelayMs(50);

lcdData(u);
DelayMs(50);
lcdData(t);
DelayMs(50);
lcdData(s);
DelayMs(50);
}

void buzzer(unsigned int time)
{

BUZZPORT=1;

DelayMs(time);

BUZZPORT=0;
}

EXPECTED OUTCOME:

Figure3.2 : project body

Figure 3.3: Idle condition

Figure3.4 Balance deduction

Figure 3.5: balance

Figure 3.6: vehicle counter

Figure 3.7: recharge card

Figure3.8 : parking is full

Figure 3.9: Vehicle exit

CONCLUSION:

In this chapter we make the program of our project using keil micro version3. And we getting the output of our project in keil micro version3.

CHAPTER 4
Hardware description of Advance parking vehicle system
4.1 POWER SUPPLY
Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others. Here in our application we need a 5v DC power supply for all electronics involved in the project. This requires step down transformer, rectifier, voltage regulator, and filter circuit for generation of 5v DC power. Here a brief description of all the components is given as follows.
4.2 TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors the transformer’s coils or "windings". Except for air-core transformers, the conductors are commonly wound around a single iron-rich core, or around separate but magnetically coupled cores. A varying current in the first or "primary" winding creates a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the transformer. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the "secondary" winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

Figure4.1: Transformer

Figure4.2: Transformer Winding
In its most basic form a transformer consists of a primary coil or winding. A secondary coil or winding. A core that supports the coils or windings.
Refer to the transformer circuit in figure as you read the following explanation: The primary winding is connected to a 60-hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up (expands) and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating current to flow through the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and secondary windings. If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in the secondary winding of the transformer and transfer energy from the primary circuit to the load connected in the secondary circuit. The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the primary VP by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings:

The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux. The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.
The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and delivers it to the load.
.
4.3 REGULATOR IC (78XX)
It is a three pin IC used as a voltage regulator. It converts unregulated DC current into regulated DC current.

Figure4.3: Regulator IC
Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at the output of the filtered DC (see in above diagram). It can also be used in circuits to get a low DC voltage from a high DC voltage (for example we use 7805 to get 5V from 12V). There are two types of voltage regulators 1. Fixed voltage regulators (78xx, 79xx) 2. Variable voltage regulators (LM317) In fixed voltage regulators there is another classification 1. +ve voltage regulators 2. -ve voltage regulators POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS this include 78xx voltage regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and 7812. 7805 gives fixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage is in (7.5V, 20V).
4.4. AT89s52:

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory pro-grammar. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller, which provides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution to many, embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt.

4.5. LED
TYPICAL SPECIFICATION. OF HIGH BRIGHT LED
1Watt LED Full intensity 350mA, Maximum current 500mA
2.8V Volt drop @ 350mA
3Watt LED Full intensity 700mA, Maximum current 1A
4.3V Volt drop @ 700mA
5 Watt LED (multi-die package) Full intensity 700mA, Maximum current 1A
7.1V Volt drop @ 700mA
5 Watt LED (single-die) Full intensity 1.5A

Figure4.4: LED
LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give offvisible light when it is energized. In any forward biased PN junction there is, with in the structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of hole and electrons. This recombination requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free electron be transferred to another state. The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source
is called electroluminescence.LED is a component used for indication. All the functions
being carried out are displayed by led .The LED is diodewhich glows when the current is being flown through it inforward bias condition. The LEDs are available in the round shell and also in the flat shells. The positive leg is longer than negative leg.
4.6 THE OVERVIEW SUMMARY OF AT89S52 MICROsCONTROLLER
4.6.1 Summary:
Microcontroller AT89S52
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7 to 12V
Input Voltage (limits) 6 to 20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 40Ma
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50Ma
Flash Memory 32KB of which 2KB used by boot loader
SRAM 2KB
EEPROM 1KB
Clock 12MHz

4.6.2 The power pins are as follows:
VIN. The input voltage to the board when it’s using an external power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin or if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.5V. The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller and other components on the board. This can come either from VIN via an on-board regulator, or be supplied by USB or another regulated 5V supply . A Maximum current Draw is 50mA. GND. Ground pins.

4.6.3 Memory
The ATmega328 has 32 KB of flash memory for storing code (of which 2 KB is used for the boot loader) The ATmega328 has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).
4.7. BC547
IT is a general purpose transistor.
FEATURES
‘ Low current (max. 100 mA)
‘ Low voltage (max. 65 V).
APPLICATIONS
‘ General purpose switching and amplification.
4.8. 16 x 2 CHARACTER LCD:-

Figure4.5: 16×2 Lcd Display

FEATURES:
‘ 5 x 8 dots with cursor
‘ Built-in controller (KS 0066 or Equivalent)
‘ + 5V power supply (Also available for + 3V)
‘ 1/16 duty cycle
‘ B/L to be driven by pin 1, pin 2 or pin 15, pin 16 or A.K (LED)
‘ N.V. optional for + 3V power supply

PIN NUMBER SYMBOL FUNCTION:
1 Vss GND
2 Vdd + 3V or + 5V
3 Vo Contrast Adjustment
4 RS H/L Register Select Signal
5 R/W H/L Read/Write Signal
6 E H ‘ L Enable Signal
7 DB0 H/L Data Bus Line
8 DB1 H/L Data Bus Line
9 DB2 H/L Data Bus Line
10 DB3 H/L Data Bus Line
11 DB4 H/L Data Bus Line
12 B5 H/L Data Bus Line
13 DB6 H/L Data Bus Line
14 DB7 H/L Data Bus Line
15 A/Vee + 4.2V for LED/Negative Voltage Output.

DIODE:
The diode is a p-n junction device. Diode is the component used to control the flow of the current in any one direction. The diode widely works in forward bias.
Diode When the current flows from the P to N direction.Then it is in forward bias. The Zener diode is used in reverse bias function i.e. N to P direction. Visually the identification of the diode`s terminal can be done by identifying he silver/black line. The silver/black line is thenegative terminal (cathode) and the other terminal is the positive terminal (cathode).

IR SENSOR:
The IR Sensor-Single is a general purpose proximity sensor. Herewe use it for collision detection. The module consist of a IR emitter and IR receiver pair. The high precision IR receiver always detects a IR signal.

Figure4.6: IR sensor

DC MOTOR :

Figure4.7: DC motor

DC motors consist of one set of coils, called armature winding, inside another set of coils or a set of permanent magnets, called the stator. Applying a voltage to the coils produces a torque in the armature, resulting in motion.

Stator
The stator is the stationary outside part of a motor.The stator of a permanent magnet dc motor is composed of two or more permanent magnet pole pieces.The magnetic field can alternatively be created by an electromagnet. In this case, a DC coil (field winding) is wound around a magnetic material that forms part of the stator.s
Rotor
The rotor is the inner part which rotates. The rotor is composed of windings (called armature windings) which are connected to the external circuit through a mechanical commutator.Both stator and rotor are made of ferromagnetic materials. The two are separated by air-gap.
Winding
A winding is made up of series or parallel connection of coils.Armature winding – The winding through which the voltage is applied or induced.Field winding – The winding through which a current is passed to produce flux (for the electromagnet) Windings are usually made of copper.
L293D Motor Driver:
Featuring Unitrode L293D and L293D
Wide Supply-Voltage Range: 4.5 V to 36 V
Separate Input-Logic Supply
Internal ESD Protection
Thermal Shutdown
High-Noise-Immunity Inputs
Functionally Similar to SGS L293 and
SGS L293D
Output Current 1 A Per Channel
(600 mA for L293D)
Peak Output Current 2 A Per Channel
(1.2 A for L293D)
Output Clamp Diodes for Inductive
Transient Suppression (L293D)

TECTILE SWITCH:

A Wide Range of Models:
6 ?? 6 mm, 12 ?? 12 mm, Side-operated,High-force, and Gold-plated.
A positive click action plus a long life equal to that of a no-contact switch.
Radial models (taping specifications) that allow the use of general-purpose radial taping parts
insertion machines have been added to the series.
Series also includes gold-plated models delivering long-term contact and insulation reliability.

Figure4.8: Tectile switches

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER(LM358):

It is a voltage comparator IC.
Wide Supply Range: Single Supply 3 V to 32 V or Dual Supplies 1.5 V to _16 V
Low Supply-Current Drain, Independent of Supply Voltage 0.7 mA Typ
Common-Mode Input Voltage Range
Low Input Bias and Offset Parameters:
Input Offset Voltage . . . 3 mV Typ
A Versions . . . 2 mV Typ
Input Offset Current . . . 2 nA Typ
Input Bias Current . . . 20 nA Typ
A Versions . . . 15 nA Typ
Differential Input Voltage Range Equal to Maximum-Rated Supply Voltage . . . 32 V
Open-Loop Differential Voltage
Amplification . . . 100 V/mV TySSp

4.9 BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RFID TAGS

Figure4.9: Block diagram of rfid tags

4.10 Radio-frequency identification

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is a technology that uses communication through the use of radio waves to exchange data between a reader and an electronic tag attached to an object, for the purpose of identification and tracking.It is possible in the near future, RFID technology will continue to proliferate in our daily lives the way that bar code technology did over the forty years leading up to the turn of the 21st century bringing unobtrusive but remarkable changes when it was new.
RFID makes it possible to give each product in a grocery store its own unique identifying number, to provide assets, people, work in process, medical devices etc. all with individual unique identifiers – like the license plate on a car but for every item in the world. This is a vast improvement over paper and pencil tracking or bar code tracking that has been used since the 1970s. With bar codes, it is only possible to identify the brand and type of package in a grocery store, for instance. Furthermore, passive RFID tags (those without a battery) can be read if passed within close enough proximity to an RFID reader. It is not necessary to "show" them to it, as with a bar code. In other words it does not require line of sight to "see" an RFID tag, the tag can be read inside a case, carton, box or other container, and unlike barcodes RFID tags can be read hundreds at a time. Bar codes can only read one at a time.
Some RFID tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the reader. The application of bulk reading enables an almost-parallel reading of tags.Radio-frequency identification involves the hardware known as interrogators (also known as readers), and tags (also known as labels), as well as RFID software or RFID middleware.Most RFID tags contain at least two parts: one is an integrated circuit for storing and processing information, modulating and demodulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal, and other specialized functions; the other is an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal.
RFID can be either passive (using no battery), active (with an on-board battery that always broadcasts or beacons its signal) or battery assisted passive "BAP" which has a small battery on board that is activated when in the presence of an RFID reader. Passive tags in 2011 start at $ .05 each and for special tags meant to be mounted on metal, or withstand gamma sterilization go up to $5. Active tags for tracking containers, medical assets, or monitoring environmental conditions in data centers all start at $50 and can go up over $100 each. BAP tags are in the $3’10 range and also have sensor capability like temperature and humidity.
The term RFID refers to the technology. The tags should properly be called "RFID tags" not "RFIDs".Fixed RFID and Mobile RFID: Depending on mobility, RFID readers are classified into two different types: fixed RFID and mobile RFID. If the reader reads tags in a stationary position, it is called fixed RFID. These fixed readers are set up specific interrogation zones and create a "bubble" of RF energy that can be tightly controlled if the physics is well engineered. This allows a very definitive reading area for when tags go in and out of the interrogation zone. On the other hand, if the reader is mobile when the reader reads tags, it is called mobile RFID.
There are three types of RFID tags: passive RFID tags, which have no power source and require an external electromagnetic field to initiate a signal transmission, active RFID tags, which contain a battery and can transmit signals once an external source (‘Interrogator’) has been successfully identified, and battery assisted passive (BAP) RFID tags, which require an external source to wake up but have significant higher forward link capability providing greater range.
There are a variety of groups defining standards and regulating the use of RFID, including the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Electro technical Commission (IEC), ASTM International, the DASH7 Alliance and EPCglobal. (Refer to Regulation and standardization below.)There are also several specific industries that have set guidelines including the Financial Services Technology Consortium (FSTC) has set a standard for tracking IT Assets with RFID, the Computer Technology Industry Association Comitia has set a standard for certifying RFID engineers and the International Airlines Transport Association IATA set tagging guidelines for luggage in airports.
RFID has many applications; for example, it is used in enterprise supply chain management to improve the efficiency of inventory tracking and management. The Healthcare industry has used RFID to create tremendous productivity increases by eliminating "parasitic" roles that don’t add value to an organization such as counting, looking for things, or auditing items. Many financial institutions use RFID to track key assets and automate Sarbanes Oxley SOX compliance. Also with recent advances in social media RFID is being used to tie the physical world with the virtual world. RFID in Social Media first came to light in 2010 with face book’s annual conference (f8).

4.11 History and technology background

Figure4.10: A RFID tag used for electronic toll collection

In 1945 Leon Theremin invented an espionage tool for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident radio waves with audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the resonator, which modulated the reflected radio frequency. Even though this device was a covert listening device, not an identification tag, it is considered to be a predecessor of RFID technology, because it was likewise passive, being energized and activated by waves from an outside source.
Similar technology, such as the IFF transponder developed in the United Kingdom, was routinely used by the allies in World War II to identify aircraft as friend or foe. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft to this day. Another early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman, titled "Communication by Means of Reflected Power" (Proceedings of the IRE, pp 1196’1204, October 1948). Stockman predicted that "… considerable research and development work has to be done before the remaining basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of useful applications is explored."
Mario Cardullo’s device in 1973 was the first true ancestor of modern RFID, as it was a passive radio transponder with memory. The initial device was passive, powered by the interrogating signal, and was demonstrated in 1971 to the New York Port Authority and other potential users and consisted of a transponder with 16 bit memory for use as a toll device. The basic Cardullo patent covers the use of RF, sound and light as transmission media. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation (automotive vehicle identification, automatic toll system, electronic license plate, electronic manifest, vehicle routing, vehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic check book, electronic credit card), security (personnel identification, automatic gates, surveillance) and medical (identification, patient history).
An early demonstration of reflected power (modulated backscatter) RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle, and Robert Freyman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1973.The portable system operated at 915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority of today’s UHFID and microwave RFID tags.
The first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted to Charles Walton in 1983.
The largest deployment of active RFID is the US Department of Defense use of save active tags on every one of its more than a million shipping containers that travel outside of the continental United States.

4.12 CURRENT USES:

In 2014 three key factors drove a significant increase in RFID usage: decreased cost of equipment and tags, increased performance to a reliability of 99.9% and a stable international standard around UHF passive. At RFID Journal Live 2010 in Orlando, Airbus detailed 16 active projects, IBM and’most recently added to the team’CSC. The two other areas of significant use are financial services for IT asset tracking and healthcare with more than 60% of the top medical device companies using passive UHF RFID in 2010. RFID is becoming increasingly prevalent as the price of the technology decreases. The Japanese HIBIKI initiative aims to reduce the price to 5 Yen (4 eurocents). In January 2009 Envego announced a 5.9 cent tag,[citation needed] and in March 2010 a Korean laboratory successfully created a printed chip using carbon annotates that would halve the price of a passive UHF RFID tag to about three cents by late 2011.

4.12.1 Payment by mobile phones

Since summer 2009, two credit card companies have been working with Dallas, Texas-based Device Fidelity to develop specialized microSD cards. When inserted into a mobile phone, the microSD card can be both a passive tag and an RFID reader. After inserting the microSD, a user’s phone can be linked to bank accounts and used in mobile payment.
Dairy Queen in conjunction with Vivotech has also begun using RFIDs on mobile phones as part of their new loyalty and rewards program. Patrons can ask to receive an RFID tag to place on their phone. After activation, the phone can receive promotions and coupons, which can be read by ViVOtech’s specialized NFC devices.
Similarly, 7-Eleven has been working alongside MasterCard to promote a new touch-free payment system. Those joining the trial are given a complimentary Nokia 3220 cell phone ‘ after activation, it can be used as an RFID-capable MasterCard credit card at any of 7-Eleven’s worldwide chains.
Nokia’s 2008 device, the 6212, has RFID capabilities also. Credit card information can be stored, and bank accounts can be directly accessed using the enabled handset. The phone, if used as a vector for mobile payment, has added security in that users would be required to enter a pass code or PIN before payment is authorized.

Transportation payments
Governments use RFID applications for traffic management, while automotive companies use various RFID tracking solutions for product management. Many of these solutions may work together in the future, though privacy regulations prevent many initiatives from moving forward at the same pace that technology allows.
Public transit (bus, rail, subway)

Throughout Europe, and in particular in Paris (system started in 1995 by the RATP), Lyon, Bordeaux, Grenoble, Nancy and Marseilles in France, in the whole of the Portuguese highway system and in many Portuguese public car parks, Milan, Turin, Naples and Florence in Italy, and Brussels in Belgium, RFID passes conforming to the Calypso international standard are used for public transport systems. They are also used now in Canada (Montreal), Mexico, Israel, Bogot?? and Pereira in Colombia, Stavanger in Norway, Luxembourg, Gavle in Sweden, etc.
In South Korea, T-money cards can be used to pay for public transit. It can also be used in most convenience stores and vending machines in subways as cash. 90% of cabs in Seoul accept card payment, including most major credit cards and the T-money card. T-money replaced Upass, first introduced for transport payments in 1996 using MIFARE technology.
In Hong Kong, mass transit is paid for almost exclusively through the use of an RFID technology, called the Octopus Card. Originally it was launched in September 1997 exclusively for transit fare collection, but has grown to be similar to a cash card, and can still be used in vending machines, fast-food restaurants and supermarkets. The card can be recharged with cash at add-value machines or in shops, and can be read several centimeters from the reader. The same applies for Delhi Metro, the rapid transit system in New Delhi, capital city of India.
In Shanghai the Shanghai Public Transportation Card allows the user to credit money in advance and to be debited according to the distance travelled, as determined by the check-in and check-out stations. The card can also be used to pay taxi drivers, and some shops offer card readers as well.
The Moscow Metro, the world’s second busiest, was the first system in Europe to introduce RFID smartcards in 1998.
The Washington Metro rail became the first U.S. urban mass-transit system to use RFID technology when it introduced the Smart rip card in 1999.
JR East in Japan introduced SUICa (Super Urban Intelligent Card) for transport payment service in its railway transportation service in November 2001, using Sony’s FeliCa (Felicity Card) technology. The same Sony technology was used in Hong Kong’s Octopus card, and Singapore’s EZ-Link card.

Product tracking:
RFID use in product tracking applications begins with plant-based production processes, and then extends into post-sales configuration management policies for large buyers.

Casino chip tracking:

In 2005, the Wynn Casino, Las Vegas, began placing individual RFID tags on high value chips. These tags allowed casinos the ability to detect counterfeit chips, track betting habits of individual players, speed up chip tallies, and determine counting mistakes of dealers. In 2010, the Bellagio casino was robbed of $1.5 million in chips. The RFID tags of these chips were immediately invalidated, thus making the cash value of these chips $0.

IT asset tracking:

By 2011 there are more than 100 passive RFID tags that are meant to be specifically mounted on metal. ODIN technologies of Ashburn, Virginia, produced a benchmark which showed varying performance of metal mount tags, with the greatest read distance being just over 25 feet in real-world conditions. In 2010 there are more than 60 metal mount specific RFID tags.[clarification needed] Members of the financial service industry, including Wells Fargo, Bank of America, Morgan Stanley, Citigroup, Fidelity and others, are purported to have tagged more than one million assets.
At the same time new integrated circuits (ICs) were introduced by Alien, Impinj and NXP (formerly Philips) which proved much better performance and use of the IT asset tracking application increased.

4.13 RFID MANDATES:

Wal-Mart and the United States Department of Defense have published requirements that their vendors place RFID tags on all shipments to improve supply chain management. Due to the size of these two organizations, their RFID mandates impact thousands of companies worldwide. The deadlines have been extended several times because many vendors face significant difficulties implementing RFID systems. In practice, the successful read rates currently run only 80%, due to radio wave attenuation caused by the products and packaging. In time it is expected that even small companies will be able to place RFID tags on their outbound shipments.

4.14 WAL-MART MANDATE:

Figure4.11: An EPC RFID tag used by Wal-Marts

In January 2005, Wal-Mart required its top 100 suppliers to apply RFID labels to all shipments. To meet this requirement, vendors use RFID printer/encoders to label cases and pallets that require EPC tags for Wal-Mart. These smart labels are produced by embedding RFID inlays inside the label material, and then printing bar code and other visible information on the surface of the label.
In October 2005 the University of Arkansas’ Information Technology Research Institute released a report on its preliminary study of the impact of RFID on reducing retail out-of-stocks and concluded that RFID reduced OOS by 21% over non-RFID based stores.
Two years later the Wall Street Journal published an article titled "Wal-Mart’s Radio-Tracked Inventory Hits Static." The articles stated that the RFID plan set forth by Wal-Mart was "showing signs of fizzling" due to a lack of progress by Wal-Mart executives to introduce the technology to its stores and to the non-existent incentives for suppliers.
In October 2007 Wal-Mart announced new focus areas for its RFID implementation:
Shipments going to Sam’s Club
Promotional displays and products going to Wal-Mart stores
Tests to see RFID’s impact in improving category management in select areas
Another Wal-Mart division, Sam’s Club, has also moved in this direction. It sent letters dated Jan. 7, 2008 to its suppliers, stating that by Jan. 31, 2008, every full single-item pallet shipped to its distribution center in Desoto, Texas, or directly to one of its stores served by that DC, must bear an EPC Gen 2 RFID tag. Suppliers failing to comply will be charged a service fee.
However, in January 2009 Sam’s Club drastically lowered the penalty for failure to tag pallets from $2 a pallet to just 12 cents a pallet. The 12 cents a pallet is what Wal-Mart estimated it would cost Sam’s to do the tagging itself. Sam’s also announced that pallet-level tagging is expected to be introduced throughout the entire chain in 2010 while the deadline for tagging individual items was "under review."
In February 2009 Procter & Gamble stated it was ending its promotional program with Wal-Mart after Procter & Gamble "validated" benefits of the RFID program in merchandising and promotional displays. This implied Wal-Mart was not acting on the information to improve store execution.

Department of Defense mandate:
The DOD requirement for RFID tags on packages is prescribed in the Defense Federal Acquisition Regulations Supplements (DFARS) 252.211-7006. Positioning of the tag needs to be completed in accordance with the clause and definitions in MIL STD 129 and as of 1 March 2007, EPC Global tags must comply with EPCglobal Class 1 Generation 2 specification
Promotion tracking:
Manufacturers of products sold through retailers promote their products by offering discounts for a limited period on products sold to retailers with the expectation that the retailers will pass on the savings to their customers. However, retailers typically engage in forward buying, purchasing more product during the discount period than they intend to sell during the promotion period. Some retailers engage in a form of arbitrage, reselling discounted product to other retailers, a practice known as diverting. To combat this practice, manufacturers are exploring the use of RFID tags on promoted merchandise so that they can track exactly which product has sold through the supply chain at fully discounted prices.

4.15 LIBRARIES:

Figure4.12: RFID tags used in libraries: square book tag, round CD/DVD tag and rectangular VHS tag

Among the many uses of RFID technology is its deployment in libraries. This technology has slowly begun to replace the traditional barcodes on library items (books, CDs, DVDs, etc.). The RFID tag can contain identifying information, such as a book’s title or material type, without having to be pointed to a separate database (but this is rare in North America). The information is read by an RFID reader, which replaces the standard barcode reader commonly found at a slibrary’s circulation desk. The RFID tag found on library materials typically measures 50??50 mm in North America and 50??75 mm in Europe.
It may replace or be added to the barcode, offering a different means of inventory management by the staff and self service by the borrowers. It can also act as a security device, taking the place of the more traditional electromagnetic security strip.
While there is some debate as to when and where RFID in libraries first began, it was first proposed in the late 1990s as a technology that would enhance workflow in the library setting. Singapore was certainly one of the first to introduce RFID in libraries and Rockefeller University in New York may have been the first academic library in the United States to utilize this technology, whereas Farmington Community Library in Michigan may have been the first public institution, both of which began using RFID in 1999. In Europe, the first public library to use RFID was the one in Hoogezand-Sappemeer, the Netherlands, in 2001, where borrowers were given an option. To their surprise, 70% used the RFID option and quickly adapted, including elderly people.
Worldwide, in absolute numbers, RFID is used most in the United States (with its 300 million inhabitants), followed by the United Kingdom and Japan. It is estimated that over 30 million library items worldwide now contain RFID tags, including some in the Vatican Library in Rome. At the time of 2010, the largest RFID implementation in academic library is the University of Hong Kong Libraries which have over 1.20 million library items contain RFID tags whereas the largest implementation for public institution has been installed in Seattle Public Library in the United States.
RFID has many library applications that can be highly beneficial, particularly for circulation staff. Since RFID tags can be read through an item, there is no need to open a book cover or DVD case to scan an item. This could reduce repetitive-motion injuries. Where the books have a barcode on the outside, there is still the advantage that borrowers can scan an entire pile of books in one go, instead of one at a time. But, as with barcode, this can all be done by the borrowers themselves, meaning they might never again need the assistance of staff. Next to these readers with a fixed location there are also portable ones (for librarians, but in the future possibly also for borrowers, possibly even their own general-purpose readers). With these, inventories could be done on a whole shelf of materials within seconds, without a book ever having to be taken off the shelf. In Umea, Sweden, RFID is being used to assist visually impaired people in borrowing audio books. In Malaysia, Smart Shelves are used to pinpoint the exact location of books in Multimedia University Library, Cyberjaya. In the Netherlands, handheld readers are being introduced for this purpose.
The Dutch Union of Public Libraries (‘Vereeniging van Open bare Bibliotheken’) is working on the concept of an interactive ‘context library’, where borrowers get a reader/headphones-set, which leads them to the desired section of the library (using triangulation methods, rather like GPS) and which they can use to read information from books on the shelves with the desired level of detail (e.g. a section read out loud), coming from the book’s tag itself or a database elsewhere, and get tips on alternatives, based on the borrowers’ preferences, thus creating a more personalised version of the library. This may also lead them to sections of the library they might not otherwise visit. Borrowers could also use the system to exchange experiences (such as grading books). This is already done by children in the virtual realm at mijnstempel.nl, but the same could be done in physical form. Borrowers can grade the book at the return desk.
However, as of 2008 this technology remains too costly for many smaller libraries, and the conversion period has been estimated at 11 months for an average-size library. A 2004 Dutch estimate was that a library which lends 100,000 books per year should plan on a cost of ‘50,000 (borrow- and return-stations: 12,500 each, detection porches 10,000 each; tags 0.36 each).

Passports:

The first RFID passports ("E-passport") were issued by Malaysia in 1998. In addition to information also contained on the visual data page of the passport, Malaysian e-passports record the travel history (time, date, and place) of entries and exits from the country.
Other countries that insert RFID in passports include Norway (2005), Japan (March 1, 2006), most EU countries (around 2006) including Spain, Ireland and the UK, Australia, Hong Kong and the United States (2007), Serbia (July 2008), Republic of Korea (August 2008), Taiwan (December 2008), Albania (January 2009), The Philippines (August 2009), Republic of Macedonia (2010).
Standards for RFID passports are determined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and are contained in ICAO Document 9303, Part 1, Volumes 1 and 2 (6th edition, 2006). ICAO refers to the ISO/IEC 14443 RFID chips in e-passports as "contactless integrated circuits". ICAO standards provide for e-passports to be identifiable by a standard e-passport logo on the front cover.
In 2006, RFID tags were included in new US passports. The US produced 10 million passports in 2005, and it has been estimated that 13 million will be produced in 2006. The chips inlays produced by SmartTag will store the same information that is printed within the passport and will also include a digital picture of the owner. The US State Department initially stated the chips could only be read from a distance of 10 cm (4 in), but after widespread criticism and a clear demonstration that special equipment can read the test passports from 10 meters (33 ft) away, the passports were designed to incorporate a thin metal lining to make it more difficult for unauthorized readers to "skim" information when the passport is closed.
The department will also implement Basic Access Control (BAC), which functions as a Personal Identification Number (PIN) in the form of characters printed on the passport data page. Before a passport’s tag can be read, this PIN must be entered into an RFID reader. The BAC also enables the encryption of any communication between the chip and interrogator.
Security expert Bruce Schneider has suggested that a mugger operating near an airport could target victims who have arrived from wealthy countries, or a terrorist could design an improvised explosive device which functioned when approached by persons from a particular country if passengers did not put their cards in an area close to their body (high liquid and saline content) or in a foil-lined wallet. Some other European Union countries are also planning to add fingerprints and other biometric data, while some have already done so.

Race timing:

Figure4.13: J-Chip 8-channel receiver next to timing mat. The athlete wears a chip

Figure4.14: Champion Chip

Many forms of RFID race timing have been in use for timing races of different types since the early 1990s. The practice began with pigeon racing, introduced by a company called deister electronic Gmbh of Barsinghausen, Germany. It is used for registering race start and end timings for animals or individuals in large running races or multi-sport races where it is impossible to get accurate stopwatch readings for every entrant.

4.16 REGULATION AND STANDARDIZATION

There is no global public body that governs the frequencies used for RFID. In principle, every country can set its own rules for this. The main bodies governing frequency allocation for RFID are:
‘ USA: FCC (Federal Communications Commission)
‘ Canada: Industry Canada – Spectrum Management Branch
‘ Europe: ERO, CEPT, ETSI, and national
‘ Malaysia: Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission
‘ Japan: MIC (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications)
‘ China: Ministry of Information Industry
‘ Taiwan: NCC (National Communications Commission)
‘ South Africa: ICASA
‘ South Korea: Ministry of Knowledge Economy
‘ Australia: Australian Communications and Media Authority.
‘ New Zealand: Ministry of Economic Development
‘ Singapore: Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore
‘ Brazil: Anatel (Ag??ncia Nacional de Telecomunica’?es)

Low-frequency (LF: 125’134.2 kHz and 140’148.5 kHz) (Low FID) tags and high-frequency (HF: 13.56 MHz) (High FID) tags can be used globally without a license. Ultra-high-frequency (UHF: 868’928 MHz) (Ultra-High FID or UHFID) tags cannot be used globally as there is no single global standard. In North America, UHF can be used unlicensed for 902’928& MHz (??13 MHz from the 915 MHz center frequency), but restrictions exist for transmission power.
In Europe, RFID and other low-power radio applications are regulated by ETSI recommendations EN 300 220 and EN 302 208, and ERO recommendation 70 03, allowing RFID operation with somewhat complex band restrictions from 865’868 MHz
Readers are required to monitor a channel before transmitting ("Listen before Talk"); this requirement has led to some restrictions on performance, the resolution of which is a subject of current research. The North American UHF standard is not accepted in France as it interferes with its military bands. For China and Japan, there is no regulation for the use of UHF. Each application for UHF in these countries needs a site license, which needs to be applied for at the local authorities, and can be revoked. For Australia and New Zealand, 918’926 MHz are unlicensed, but restrictions exist for transmission power.
These frequencies are known as the ISM bands (Industrial Scientific and Medical bands). The return signal of the tag may still cause interference for other radio users.
Some standards that have been made regarding RFID technology include:
‘ ISO 14223 ‘ Radiofrequency [sic] identification of animals ‘ Advanced transponders
‘ ISO/IEC 14443: This standard is a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for High Fids which is being used as the basis of RFID-enabled passports under ICAO 9303. The Near Field Communication standard that lets mobile devices act as RFID readers/transponders is also based on ISO/IEC 14443.
‘ ISO/IEC 15693: This is also a popular HF (13.56 MHz) standard for High Fids widely used for non-contact smart payment and credit cards.

4.17 PROBLEMS AND CONCERNS:

Data flooding:
Each tag generating a message each time when passing a reader may be a desired outcome. However, event filtering is required to reduce this data inflow to a meaningful depiction of moving goods passing a threshold. Various concepts have been designed, mainly offered as middleware performing the filtering from noisy and redundant raw data to significant processed data.

Global standardization:

The frequencies used for RFID in the USA are currently incompatible with those of Europe or Japan. Furthermore, no emerging standard has yet become as universal as the barcode.
To address international trade concerns, it is necessary to utilize a tag that is operational within all of the international frequency domains. An example of such a tag is a Sentry-M WW from RCD Technology. This mount on metal asset tag provides typical read range of 2 meters (6 ft.). It is functional across the worldwide UHF frequency bands between 860′ 960 MHz It exceeds the Financial Services Technology Consortium RFID Basic Functional Requirements for Data Center Assets in the North American, European and Japanese frequency bands. As a mount on metal solution, the Sentry-M WW is used for tracking many metal assets, such as IT Assets, tools or metal containers.

Security concerns:

A primary RFID security concern is the illicit tracking of RFID tags. Tags, which are world-readable, pose a risk to both personal location privacy and corporate/military security. Such concerns have been raised with respect to the United States Department of Defense’s recent adoption of RFID tags for supply chain management. More generally, privacy organizations have expressed concerns in the context of ongoing efforts to embed electronic product code (EPC) RFID tags in consumer products.
EPCglobal Network, by design, is also susceptible to DOS attacks. Using similar mechanism with DNS in resolving EPC data requests, the ONS Root servers become vulnerable to DOS attacks. Any organization planning to embark on EPCglobal Network may cringe upon discovering that the EPCglobal Network infrastructure inherits security weaknesses similar to DNS’s.
A second class of defense uses cryptography to prevent tag cloning. Some tags use a form of "rolling code" scheme, wherein the tag identifier information changes after each scan, thus reducing the usefulness of observed responses. More sophisticated devices engage in Challenge-response authentications where the tag interacts with the reader. In these protocols, secret tag information is never sent over the insecure communication channel between tag and reader. Rather, the reader issues a challenge to the tag, which responds with a result computed using a cryptographic circuit keyed with some secret value. Such protocols may be based on symmetric or public key cryptography. Cryptographically-enabled tags typically have dramatically higher cost and power requirements than simpler equivalents, and as a result, deployment of these tags is much more limited. This cost/power limitation has led some manufacturers to implement cryptographic tags using substantially weakened, or proprietary encryption schemes, which do not necessarily resist sophisticated attack.

4.18 EXTENDED CAPABILITY OF RFID:

Extended Capability RFID is a marketing category for RFID. The term suggests the impression to go beyond the basic capabilities of standard RFID. However, evolution of RFID technology is steadily going on, whereas demand hides behind the looking for the ultimate improvements. What has been extended yesterday will be common denominator tomorrow. The limiting factor for RFID will always be physics and regulation for radio frequency applications and technologies.
Extended capability RFID is said to provide the ability to read at longer distances and around challenging environments, to store large amounts of data on the tag, to integrate with sensors, and to communicate with external devices. Such combinations are fairly available on the markets, but under all conditions have respective prices. On the other hand, for example longer reading distances is equivalent to lesser object discrimination capability: The remaining challenge remains to define the appropriate solution and to select from existing offerings, instead of waiting for the next improvement.
Examples of extended capability RFID tag technologies include EPC C1G2 with extended memory (e.g. 64Kb), battery-assisted passive, and active RFID. Battery-assisted passive, also known as semi-passive or semi-active, has the ability to extend the read range of standard passive technologies to well over 50 meters, to read around challenging materials such as metal, to withstand outdoor environments, to store an on-tag database, to be able to capture sensor data, and to act as a communications mechanism for external devices.

4.19 FUTURE ASPECTS:

The RFID based parking system is reqire in big cities, malls and club for parking the vehicle with security so the can save time and easily get the parking slot. We display the parking slot so the easily know whether the parking slot is free or not.
We can modify and add facility of slot booking so the user can get their parking slot and save time.
4.20 CONCLUSION:-
By making use of the RFID kit and A89S52 microcontroller, a vehicle parking system was designed and implement in this project. With this rfid based parking system, a car with authorized RFID tag can fast enter the parking lot without manually scanning the parking. Therefore, this system help user reduce the wasting time of search parking lot and also improve the parking lot utilization.