Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Research background
Understanding the phenomenon of urbanization and analyses of patterns of urbanization would help in addressing the present and future needs of a region because it plays an important role in infrastructure planning and regional planning, so it is very important especially when resources are limited. During the landuse development, it affects air quality through influencing pollutant deposition and dispersion according to Andersson Skold (2015).
Several methods and techniques have been develop and applied to study the landuse development that correlation to particulate matter (PM10. Nowadays, there are several remote sensing satellite system such as Landsat (TM & ETM), ASTER, IKONOS, MODIS, GeoEye, Quick bird, RapidEye, WorldView and others providing from medium to high and very high resolution imagery.
Haze is said to be a partially not able to be seen through condition of the atmosphere caused by very tiny suspended solid or liquid particles in the air (Morris, 1975). Haze from open burning or forest fire usually contains large amount of particulate matter such as organic matter and graphitic carbon. This particulate matter is dangerous to health, particularly those relating to the lung and eye disease. Besides that, it is capable of reducing visibility, increasing the atmospheric greenhouse effects and affecting the tropospheric chemistry.
Figure 1.1 Hazes in Malaysia (Travel and Tourism News in Malaysia, 2013)
Conventionally, PM 10 can be measured from the ground like a sampler instrument air, sun photometers and optical particle counters. However, this instrument is not practical if the measurement is made in a relatively large area or for continuous monitoring. The haze episode, which occurred during mid-May to November 1997 is considered the worst since 1980 (five similar haze episodes had occurred in April 1983, August 1990, June 1991, October 1991 and August 1994). On 19th September 1997 Malaysian government had declared that Kuching (capital of Sarawak) was in the state of emergency when the PM10 API (Air Pollution Index) exceeded 650 (hazardous level). By 23 September 1997 the situation worsened as PM10 Kuching API reached 839, the highest ever recorded in the country.
Remote sensing has been widely used for applications such as the environment to study air quality and water quality. But the atmosphere affects the satellite images of the Earth’s surface in the solar spectrum. Thus, the signals observed by satellite sensors that the total effect of the soil and atmosphere. Tropospheric aerosols act will change the Earth’s radiation budget, but quantification of changes in radiation is difficult because of the distribution of atmospheric aerosol differ in type, size, space and time (Penner 2002).
1.2 Problem statement
Rapid landuse development has been recorded in developing countries, thus providing an indication of increasing urban issues and environmental problems in such area then occur the pollution such as air pollution. Air pollution in Asian cities has grown with the progressing industrialization and urbanization.
The changes in the economic structure seen as the growth of the manufacturing industry that affecting the amount of carbon emissions. This happens as particular economy shifts of living in an agricultural economy and later, to an industrial economy. It considers the magnitude of a population, the bigger the economy and the greater the pollution.
The main pollutants are sulphur dioxide (SO2), Hydrocarbons (HC) and volatile organic compounds (VOC), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (C6) and particulate matter (PM10/2.5). The particle size is directly linked to their potential for causing health problems. Small particles less than 10 micrometers (PM10) in diameter creates a big problem, because they can get deep into lungs and some may even get into the bloodstream.
Air pollution can come from a variety of sources. Industries, power plants, cars and trucks and many consumer products, all contribute to poor air quality. This means that every person in business and users that contribute to this problem. Therefore, this study was undertaken to investigate the condition of atmosphere at Klang, Selangor.
1.3 Aim
To study the determination of particulate matter (PM10) in relation to landuse development using remote sensing technique on area of Klang, Selangor.
1.4 Objective
a. To identify the landuse development in Klang, Selangor.
b. To produce a map distribution of particulate matter (PM10) using from Landsat 5 and Landsat 8 data.
c. To study the relationship between PM10 and landuse development.
1.5 Scope of study
Scope of study includes limitation and study area as follows.
1.5.1 Limitation of study
This study will focus on the PM 10 that relation to landuse development. It will show the changes the land use that affected to the atmosphere and will caused air pollution. Particulate matter in the air includes a mixture of solids and liquid droplets. Some particles are emitted directly and others are formed in the atmosphere when other pollutants react.
The seriousness air pollution will affect to human surround in long term. The identifying landuse development and determination of PM10 can be monitor through satellite images. Landsat satellite images from three dataset (2005, 2010 and 2015) were analyzed to map PM10 concentration over land. This study focuses only on the area of Klang that are rapid area with industry field and on clear area from cloud cover.
The study of PM concentration usually based on spatial and temporal data series measured in ground station sites in cities and rural areas. Ground-site measurements require installation and high cost of maintenance. Furthermore, the data collected through this method only effective in the coverage of small space around the station.
So, the ground measurements cannot provide a detail spatial distribution of the particulate matter (PM) air pollutant over a large area. Satellite remote sensing has provided quantitative information on particulate matter with acceptable accuracy comparable to that of surface measurements.
1.5.2 Study area
The study area is Klang, Selangor. The city of Shah Alam is partly within Klang District. Klang is the royal city and former capital of the state of Selangor, Malaysia. Port Klang, which is located in the Klang District, is the 13th busiest transshipment port and the 16th busiest container port in the world. It is recorded that Klang is suitable for researched study of air quality because Klang is one of the developing industry city in Selangor. This city is popular in industrial activity and commercial economies which contribute into factors to be considered for examine the air quality then it will harm the population growth.
Figure 1.3 Location map of study area (Wikipedia, 2012)
1.6 General methodology
The methodology of this researched can be divided into five important phase. First phase is selection of study area, second phase is selection of data types, third phase is preliminary data pre-processing, fourth phase is data processing and last phase is data analysis.
This study will cover Klang, Selangor. Three satellite images of Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI will be used in this study. For 2005 and 2010 will used Landsat 5 while 2015 will use Landsat 8. It is due to get clear area from cloud cover and stripping line on images.
Software that will be used are Erdas Imagine 2013, ENVI and ArcGIS 10.2. Erdas Imagine used for data pre processing, ENVI used for processing and ArcGIS used for data analysis. Since this study using remote sensing technique, there used varies software of remote sensing and better result for analysis is used ArcGIS software.
Data analysis is carried out to achieve the objectives as outline in section 1.4. Analysis based on relationship between landuse development and distribution of PM10 value is being study.
Chapter 2
Literature review
2.1 Introduction
Environmental pollution is becoming more and more serious as a result of development in the world today. Atmospheric dispersion and dilution of air pollutants is influenced by weather conditions and the characteristics of the topography and urban structures have a great impact on meteorological parameters such as wind direction and speed, turbulence and atmospheric stability. Environmental pollution is a concern for us at the present time because of all the daily activities related to the environment. To ensure the situation is under control, the government has established a nationwide network to monitor the situation.
Figure 2.1 An aerial view of the haze-covered capital of Kuala Lumpur (Wikipedia, 2008)
2.2 Landuse development
Landuse refers to the way in which land has been used by humans and their habitat, usually on the functional role of land for economic activities. Conversion of raw land into construction of residential, commercial or industrial building sites. The land development process involves improvements that have unlimited useful lives, such as draining, dredging, digging, filling, grading and paving. In the urban environment of natural and human due to changes to environmental concerns these days because of the deterioration of the environment and human health. The study of land use change is very important to have a plan and use of natural resources and proper management. Landuse development had categories to five different classes namely agriculture, bare land, mangrove, urban and water. Today, earth resource satellites data are very applicable and useful for land use change detection studies (Yuan et al., 2005a, Yuan et al., 2005b and Brondizio et al., 1994).
2.3 Air quality
Air pollution can come from a variety of sources. Industries, power plants, cars and trucks as well as many consumer products contribute to poor air quality. This means that every person in business and users that contribute to this problem. Since air currents can carry pollutants over long distances, millions of people are affected by air pollution, making it the biggest environmental health risks in our region. Air that people breathe is a mixture of gas and solid particles and liquid are small. On average person breathes 22, 000 times a day and take about 24 kg of air in the process to maintain the oxygen demand.
Air pollution occurs when air contains substances in quantities that are harmful to the comfort or health of humans and animals and can damage the plants and substances. These substances are called air pollutants and can either particle, liquid or gaseous in nature. It happens when any harmful gases, dust, fumes into the atmosphere and making it difficult for plants, animals and humans to survive as a clean air because air becomes dirty.
The rapid urbanization in Klang has led to increase number of motor vehicles, increased traffic congestion and pollution has become a major source of air pollution in the Klang town. It recognizes that air pollution from urban dispersion depending on the traffic flow, road configuration, land use activities and characteristics of the local weather, high atmospheric control capabilities.
2.3.1 Air Quality Management in Malaysia
Department of Environment (DOE) role’s as to monitor the state of air quality monitoring stations through their networks. The monitoring stations are strategically located in both the residential and industrial areas to detect any significant change in air quality which may be harmful to human health and the environment.
Five criteria pollutants monitored by the Department of Environment of Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter (PM10). There are two types of continuous monitoring of Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAQM) and Manual Air Quality Monitoring Station (MAQM).
Environment Malaysia – Alam Sekitar Malyasia (ASMA) is operated and maintained by a private company, which is responsible for carrying out the work of air quality monitoring for the Department of Environment. ASMA, the establishment and management of the National Environmental Data Center (EDC) as the collection, processing, interpretation, analysis and distribution environmental data (ASMA 2006.
In addition, there are 25 MAQM stations to measure total suspended particulate (TSP), PM10, and heavy metals, which are reviewed every 6 days. Continuous monitoring provides real-time updates every hour.
Figure 2.2 Location of CAQM in Malaysia and image subset of Selangor (Wikipedia, 2010)
2.3.2 Air Quality Status
Air quality in Malaysia is one of the main concerns of the countries taking steps to become an industrialized nation by 2020. Malaysia Air Pollution Index (API) derived from the measurement of fine particles (PM10) and some toxic gases such as SO2, CO, NO2, O3 and. The air quality in Malaysia is determined accordingly to API that indicates the level of pollution in the atmosphere. Malaysia follows closely the system API Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) system in the United States. The API with performance levels are as follows in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 API values with level of pollution and health measurement (Department of Environment Malaysia, 2000)
API Status Level of Pollution
0 -50 Good Pollution Low and has no ill effects on health
51-100 Moderate Pollution Moderate and has no ill effects on health
101-200 Unhealthy Mild aggravation of symptoms among high risk person, example : heart or lung disease
201-300 Very Unhealthy Significant aggravation of symptoms and decreased exercise tolerance in person with heart or lung disease
301- 500 Hazardous Severe aggravation of symptoms and endangers health
Above 500 Emergency Severe aggravation of symptoms and endangers health
2.4 Types of Pollutants
Types of pollutant divide by two pollutant which are primary and secondary pollutants.
2.4.1 Primary pollutant
Particularly air pollution can be caused by a primary source or a secondary source. Pollutants that are a direct result of the process can be called major pollutants. A classic example would be a major pollutants sulfur dioxide released from factories. The main primary pollutants produced by human activities.
Table 2.2 Major air pollutants (DOE, 2013)
Pollutant Composition Primary or secondary Characteristics
Particulate matter
Dust
Lead
Sulfuric acid
Variable
Pb
H2SO4
Primary
Primary
Secondary
Solid particle
Solid particle
Liquid particle
Nitrogen acides
Nitrogen dioxide
NO2
Primary
Reddish-brown gas
Sulfur oxides
Sulfur dioxide
SO2
Primary
Colourless gas with strong odor
Carbon oxides
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
CO
CO2
Primary
Primary
Colourless, odorless gas
Colourless, odorless gas
Hydrocarbon
Methane
Benzene
CH4
C6H6
Primary
Primary
Colourless, odorless gas
Liquid with sweet smell
Ozone O3 Secondary Pale blue gas with acid odor
Air toxics
Chlorine
Cl2
Primary
Yellow-green gas
2.4.2 Secondary pollutant
Secondary pollution is the ones caused by the interaction between the reactions of primary pollutants. Smog is created by the interaction of several major pollutants known as secondary pollutants.
Secondary pollutants include as follows :
Smog is a type of air pollution. Smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog not usually come from coal but from vehicles and industrial production react in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary production to form photochemical smog.
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NO2 and VOC. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important component in a specific area known as the stratospheric ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive to many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere during the day and night. Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) – was formed from NOx and VOC.
Figure 2.3 Smoke release from industrial factory (David, 1999)
Figure 2.4 Smoke releases from among vehicle fuel on traffic (Richard, 2001)
2.4.3 Sources of air pollution
The source of air pollutants comprise two source which are natural sources and man-made sources
2.4.3.1 Natural sources
Natural sources of pollution including dust carried by the wind from a location that does not have a green cover very little or gas produced from living body processes of carbon dioxide than humans during respiration, methane from cattle during digestion and oxygen from the plants during photosynthesis. Smoke from the combustion of various flammable objects, volcanic eruptions together with the contaminated gas emissions also makes the list of natural sources of pollution.
Figure 2.5 Dust carried by the wind from locations (Barton, 1995)
2.4.3.2 Anthropogenic or man-made sources
While looking at the man-made contribution towards air pollution, smoke has as an integral component. The smoke emitted from various forms of combustion such as bio mass, factories, vehicles and furnaces. Waste materials used to create the landfill that produces methane which is dangerous in some way. The reaction of certain gas and chemicals also constitute dangerous fumes which can affect the welfare of living creature. This is mostly related to burning in different kinds of fuel.
Figure 2.6 The smoke emitted from various forms of combustion (Barnes, 2005)
2.4.4 Causes of Air pollution
Causes of air pollution as table below.
Table 2.3 Activities and it causes (Mark, 2002)
Activities Causes
Burning of Fossil Fuels Sulphur dioxide emitted from burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and other factories. Emitting pollution from vehicles, including trucks, jeeps, cars, trains, planes causing large amounts of pollution.
Carbon monoxide caused by the burning of incorrect or incomplete and are generally caused by the use of vehicles is another major pollutants together with the nitrogen oxide from the process of natural and man-made
Agricultural activities Ammonia is quite common with products from agriculture activities and is one of the most dangerous gases in the atmosphere.
The use of insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture has grown quite a lot. It produces harmful chemicals into the air and can also cause water pollution
Exhaust from factories and industries Manufacturing industry releases large amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds and chemicals into the air and thereby decreasing air quality.
Manufacturing industry can be found in every corner of the earth and there is no area that is not affected by it.
Petroleum refinery also releases hydrocarbons and many other chemicals that pollute the air and soil pollution.
Mining operations Mining is a process in which minerals under the earth extracted using large equipment. In the process dust and chemicals released in the air causing massive air pollution.
It is one of the reasons responsible for the deteriorating health conditions of workers and nearby residents.
Indoor air pollution Household cleaning products, painting supplies produce toxic chemicals in the air and cause air pollution. It realized that once the walls paint the house, it creates some kind of smell which makes it absolutely impossible to breathe.
Popular with suspended particulate matter SPM stands, is another source of contamination. Refers to particles floating in the air, SPM is usually caused by dust and combustion.
Figure 2.7 Smoke happen caused by big forest fire (Saffron, 2009)
2.4.5 Effects of air pollution to environment
Effect of air pollution to environment as table below.
Table 2.4 Effects and it description (Artenton, 2000)
Effect Description
Respiratory and heart problems The effects of air pollution are alarming. They are known to create some breathing and heart condition along with cancer, among other threat to the body. Several millions were known to have died due to the direct or indirect effects of air pollution. Children in areas exposed to air pollution are said to often suffer from pneumonia and asthma.
Global warming Another direct impact is immediate change that the world is witnessing as a result of global warming. With an area of increased global temperatures, rising sea levels and melting ice from areas that are colder and icebergs, displacement and loss of habitat has signaled an impending disaster if action for the preservation and restoration are not implemented soon.
Acid Rain Hazardous gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. When it rains, water droplets combine with the air pollution, become acidic and then fell to the ground in the form of acid rain. Acid rain can cause great damage to humans, animals and plants.
Eutrophication Eutrophication is a condition in which a high amount of nitrogen present in some pollutants have developed above sea level and turned itself into and affect fish and algae, plants and animals. Green algae found in lakes and ponds are caused by the presence of these chemicals only.
Effect on Wildlife Just like humans, animals too are facing the adverse effects of air pollution. Toxic chemicals found in the air can force wildlife species to move to new places and change their habitat. Deposits of toxic pollutants on the water surface and can also affect marine animals.
Depletion of Ozone layer Ozone exists in the stratosphere of the earth and is responsible for protecting people from harmful (UV) ultraviolet rays. Depleting the Earth’s ozone layer caused by the presence of chlorofluorocarbons and hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. As the ozone layer is thin, it will emit dangerous radiation back to Earth and can cause skin and eye related problems. UV rays also have the ability to affect the plant.
Figure 2.8 Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides (Wikipedia, 2013)
2.4.6 Health effects
Health effect describe as below in table.
Table 2.5 Health effects and its description (Martin, 2008)
Health effects Description
Cardiovascular disease
Air pollution also appears as a risk factor for stroke, especially in developing countries where pollution levels are highest. Associations that are believed to causality and the impact can be solved by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation or an imbalance of the autonomic nervous system or other mechanism.
Lung disease
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) including chronic diseases such as bronchitis and emphysema. Research has shown an increased risk of asthma and COPD of increased exposure to traffic-related air pollution. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
Cancer A review of the evidence as to whether ambient air pollution exposure is a risk factor for cancer to conclude that long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particles) increases the risk. Exposure to PM2.5 also associated with an increased risk of death from lung cancer and cardiovascular mortality. Another research shows that the higher the level of activity increases the deposition of aerosol particles in people’s lungs and recommended to avoid strenuous activities like walking in space outside the contaminated area
Children This dangerous pollutants known as criteria pollutants and include ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and lead. A recent study in Europe has found that exposure to ultrafine particles can increase blood pressure in children.
Figure 2.9 Respiratory and heart problems (Elizabeth, 2000)
2.4.7 Solutions for Air Pollution
Solutions for air pollution are explained in table as below.
Table 2.6 Solution and its explanation (Thomas, 1997)
Solution Explanation
Use public mode of transportation Encourage people to use more public transport modes to reduce pollution. Also, try to use a car share.
Conserve energy Turn off fans and lights when leaving. A large number of fossil fuel is burned to produce electricity.
Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle Do not throw away stuff that is not in use. In fact use it for other purposes. For example, can use old jars for storing cereals or legumes.
Emphasis on clean energy resources Clean energy technologies such as solar, wind and geothermal are on high these days. Governments of various countries have provided grants to users who wish to install solar panels for their homes. This will go a long way to control air pollution.
Use energy efficient devices CFL bulbs use less energy than their peers. They live longer, take less energy, lower electricity bills and also help reduce pollution by using less energy.
2.5 Particle Pollution
Particle pollution also known as particulate matter in the air includes a mixture of solids and liquid droplets. Some particles are emitted directly and others are formed in the atmosphere when other pollutants react. Particles come in various sizes. Those are less than 10 micrometers in diameter (PM10) are so small that they can get into the lungs, potentially causing serious health problems. Ten micrometers is smaller than human hair.
Particles less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter are called fine particles. These particles are so small they can be detected only with an electron microscope. Sources of fine particles include types of combustion, including motor vehicles, power plants, residential wood burning, forest fires, agricultural burning and some industrial processes. Particles between 2.5 and 10 micrometers in diameter are referred to as rough. Source coarse particles include crushing or grinding operations, and the dust stirred up by vehicles on the road.
PM 10 particles are small enough to be inhaled and accumulate in the respiratory system. In the last decade, health studies show that smaller particles of PM 10 can cause more health problems. Now, in addition to monitoring PM 10, scientists and technicians monitor fine particles called PM 2.5, particles measure 2.5 microns in diameter or smaller, or about one ten thousandth inch. The small particles are small enough to be inhaled and nasal hair and into our defense of our lungs. PM 2.5 can pass from the lungs into the blood supply and taken to the whole body.
Particulate matter is one of the criteria pollutants. Airborne particles vary in physical and chemical composition, source and particle size. The main source of airborne PM10 and PM2.5 matter in European cities is road emissions, particularly from diesel vehicles.
2.6 The Air Quality Index (AQI)
The AQI is an index for reporting daily air quality. It tells the story of how clean or unhealthy air and any possible health affect that related. The AQI focuses on health effects may experience within a few hours or days after breathing unhealthy air. The AQI was calculated for four major air pollutants regulated by the Clean Air Act is ozone plain, particle pollution, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide.
For each of these pollutants, EPA has established national air quality standards to protect public health. Air Quality Index (AQI) for particulate matter gives information about the health effects of various levels of particles in the air as follows.
Table 2.7 Air Quality Index (AQI) for Particulate Matter (PM) (DOE, 2008)
Index
Values Levels
of Health
Concern Cautionary Statements* Colour
PM2.5 PM10
0 – 50 Good None None Green
51 – 100** Moderate None None Yellow
101 – 150 Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups People with respiratory or heart disease, the elderly, and children should limit prolonged exertion. People with respiratory disease, such as asthma, should limit outdoor exertion. Orange
151 – 200 Unhealthy People with respiratory or heart disease, the elderly, and children should avoid prolonged exertion; everyone else should limit prolonged exertion. People with respiratory disease, such as asthma, should avoid outdoor exertion; everyone else, especially the elderly and children, should limit prolonged outdoor exertion. Red
201 – 300 Very Unhealthy People with respiratory or heart disease, the elderly, and children should avoid any outdoor activity; everyone else should avoid prolonged exertion. People with respiratory disease, such as asthma, should avoid any outdoor activity; everyone else, especially the elderly and children, should limit outdoor exertion. Purple
301 – 500 Hazardous Everyone should avoid any outdoor exertion; people with respiratory or heart disease, the elderly, and children should remain indoors. Everyone should avoid any outdoor exertion; people with respiratory disease, such as asthma, should remain indoors. Maroon
The index value for PM10 is from 0 to 500. The higher the AQI value, the greater the level of air pollution and health problems is greater. For example, the AQI value of 50 represents good air quality with potentially little or no impact on public health, while the AQI value over 300 represents dangerous air quality so that everyone may experience serious consequences.
AQI value of 100 usually corresponds to the national air quality standard for the pollutant, which is the level the EPA has determined to protect public health. AQI values at or below 100 are generally considered as satisfies. When AQI values above 100, air quality is considered as unhealthy for sensitive groups, initially to a specific person.
2.7 Remote Sensing
In a more limited sense, remote sensing technology usually refers to obtaining information about the Earth’s surface (land and sea) and atmosphere using sensors on aircraft (airplanes, balloons) or space borne (satellites, spacecraft) platform. Remote sensing is a technique for collecting information on the ground without taking physical samples of the earth’s surface or touching a surface that uses sensors placed on the platform at a distance from it.
Figure 2.12 Technology using sensors onboard airborne such as aircraft or balloons (Hugo, 2001)
A sensor is used to measure the energy reflected from the earth. This information can be displayed as digital images or photographs. Sensor can be mounted on satellites orbiting the earth or on an aircraft or other structure. By measuring the wavelength and the properties of the polarization angle and energy, the satellite sensors can measure some of its atmosphere and surface. There are also infrared sensors measure thermal infrared radiations emitted from the earth, from which the land or sea surface temperature can be obtained.
Satellite data have traditionally been used to detect air pollution and can be used for qualitative measurements in large protected areas. Air quality mapping using remote-sensing data give better results at a relatively low cost. This study uses a spatial resolution digital image to estimate the high air quality. The main applications of remote sensing include environmental pollution, protection of soil, use mapping, urban planning and land management.
Figure 2.13 The spectral reflectance signatures of the various materials (natural or man-made) covering the surface of the earth (Hewlett, 2014)
2.7.1 Basic types of sensors
Basic types of sensors divide by two types. There are passive and active sensors. Remote sensing systems which measure energy that is naturally available are called passive sensors. Active sensors provide their own energy source for illumination
2.7.1.1 Passive sensor
Passive sensors can only be used to detect energy when the energy that occurs naturally available. For all reflected energy, this can only happen in a time when the sun illuminates the earth. There is no energy available from the sun reflected in the evenings. Energy naturally emitted such as thermal infrared can be detected day or night, as long as the amount of energy large enough to be recorded.
2.7.1.2 Active sensors
The sensor emits radiation which is directed towards the target to be investigated. The visible radiation from the target is detected and measured by the sensor. Advantages for active sensors include the ability to obtain measurements anytime, regardless of the time of day or season. The active sensor can be used to check wavelength that is not enough provided by the sun, such as microwaves or control the better way illuminated target. However, active systems require the generation of a relatively large amount of energy to adequately illuminate the target. Some examples of active sensors are fluorosensor laser and synthetic aperture radar (SAR).
Figure 2.14 Passive sensor and active sensor (Joseph, 2000)
2.7.2 Landsat
Landsat program is the longest running exercise in multispectral collections, digital data of the Earth’s surface from space. This program has been operating continuously since Landsat 1 was launched on July 23, 1972. More than 3 million images from the multispectral scanner (MSS) in LANDSATs 1-5 have been obtained and stored in the National Archives of the Land Remote Sensing Satellite Data (NSLRSDA).
Five Landsat satellite was successfully launched at the beginning of the Landsat 1 July 1972. All five satellites have been operating from the repetitive, circular, sun-synchronous, near polar orbit and the right-side every day, scanning the 185km wide swath of land under satellite. The first three leading satellite multispectral scanner (MSS) as the primary imaging tool with the Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) as a subsidiary.
Satellite path was leaning 99 degrees with repeated cycles of 18 days and crossing the equator 08: 50-09: 30 local time. The two last satellites (LANDSATs 4-5) has (TM) Theme Mapper and MSS sensors tend to 98 degrees, with a repeated cycle of 16 days and have a track equatorial 09:45 local time. Nominal altitude of the satellite is 920km to 705km LANDSATs to LANDSATs 1-3 and 4-5.
2.7.2.1 Sensors
TM (Thematic Mapper), the first operation of Landsat-4. TM sensor primarily detects radiation from the Earth’s surface in the nearly infrared (IR) wavelengths that can be seen and shown, but TM sensor which provides more radiometric information of the MSS sensor. The wavelength range of the sensor TM is visible (blue), through mid-IR, into the thermal-infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Sixteen detectors for wavelength bands are visible and mid IR sensor in the TM which provides 16 scans in each scan line is active. Four detectors for thermal-infrared band provides four scans for each scan line is active. TM sensor has a spatial resolution of 30 m to be seen, almost IR, and mid-IR wavelengths and spatial resolution of 120 m for the thermal-infrared band.
Table 2.9 LANDSAT TM, ETM+ Sensor Characteristics (USGS, 2014)
Band Wavelength (µm) Resolution (m)
Blue 1 0.45 – 0.52 30
Green 2 0.52 – 0.60 30
Red 3 0.63 – 0.69 30
Near IR 4 0.76 – 0.90 30
SWIR 5 1.55 – 1.75 30
Thermal IR 6 10.40 – 12.50 120 (TM) 60 (ETM+)
SWIR 7 2.08 – 2.35 30
Panchromatic 0.5 – 0.9 15
2.8 Previous study
Many algorithms were made up to correlate satellite reflectance and the PM10 values. For example, in Salah Abdul Hameed Saleh’s researched, who is use Landsat 8 OLI visible bands satellite image over Kirkuk city, Iraq to determine the particulate matter (PM10) concentration in the atmosphere.
Figure 2.15 Study area of Kirkuk city, Iraq (Gabriel, 2014)
Visible bands 1, 2, 3 and 4 of Landst 8 OLI image dated 10 Feb. 2014 for Kirkuk area were used in this study (Figure 2.16).
Figure 2.16 Landsat 8 OLI Bands 1, 2, 3 and 4 images for Kirkuk city (Gabriel, 2014)
Landsat 8 Land Operation imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) image is made up of nine spectral bands with a spatial resolution of 30 meters for Band 1 through 7 and 9. Resolution for Band 8 (panchromatic) is 15 meters. Thermal band 10 and 11 were collected at 100 meters.
Table 2.10 Spectral and Spatial characteristics of Landsat 8 OLI Bands (USGS, 2014)
Band Wavelength Resolution (meter)
Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) Launched
February 11, 2013 Band 1 – Coastal
aerosol 0.43 – 0.45 30
Band 2 – Blue 0.45 – 0.51 30
Band 3 – Green 0.53 – 0.59 30
Band 4 – Red 0.64 – 0.67 30
Band 5 – Near Infrared
(NIR) 0.85 – 0.88 30
Band 6 – SWIR 1 1.57 – 1.65 30
Band 7 – SWIR 2 2.11 – 2.29 30
Band 8 – Panchromatic 0.50 – 0.68 15
Band 9 – Cirrus 1.36 – 1.38 30
Band 10 – Thermal
Infrared (TIRS) 1 10.60 – 11.19 100
Band 11 – Thermal
Infrared (TIRS) 2 11.50 – 12.51 100
The algorithm recommends the establishment of aerosol optical reflectance model. The possibility that the proposed algorithm has been investigated by the correlation coefficient (R) and root mean square error (RMSE) compared with PM10 measurements of data. It reserves the option of multispectral model established in the highest correlation coefficient (R) and the lowest root mean square error (RMSE) and PM10 ground data. The results of this study show that the band looks Landsat 8 OLI was able to calculate the concentration of PM10 to an acceptable level of accuracy.
Table 2.11 summarizes the analysis of the linear correlation coefficient between the spectral reflectance for visible band image and ground concentrations of PM10 air pollution using Landsat 8 OLI. Correlation analysis showed significantly high correlation between the values seen the reflection of four Landsat 8 OLI band with in-suite PM10 concentrations. Correlation analysis showed that band3 (Green, 0.53 to 0.59 m) reflection was associated with PM10 measurements of ground reflection of other groups.
Table 2.11 Correlation analysis between PM10 ground measurements and Landsat 8 OLI reflectance (Gabriel, 2014)
Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4
PM10 0.799 0.785 0.802 0.770
Table 2.12 shows the various algorithms used to calculate the PM10 from the reflection Landsat8 OLI. Regression models were proposed for use by the highest correlation coefficient (R) and the lowest root mean square error (RMSE) values. The total algorithm (13) is chosen to be our backup algorithm for the highest coefficient of correlation (0.834) and the lowest root mean square error (RMSE) value (11.836) between measured and calculated values of PM10. The accuracy and validation of the results of the proposed algorithm has been carried out using ground measurements of PM10 and PM10 calculated by algorithms.
Table 2.12 Regression results (R) and (RMSE) using different forms of algorithms. (*) Calculated PM10 by algorithms, (**) b1,b2,b3 and b4 are the reflectance values for band1,band2, band3 and band4 of Landsat 8 OLI (Gabrile, 2014)
Algorithm No. Algorithm R RMSE
1. PM10(*)= 2.26 b(**)1-2.267 0.799 12.87
2. PM10= 2.04 b2- 4.406 0.785 13.263
3. PM10= 1.81 b3- 17.728 0.802 20.986
4. PM10= 1.39 b4-13.099 0.77 18.772
5. PM10= 3.56 b1-1.17 b2-0.255 0.79 13.127
6. PM10= 1.21 b1+0.98 b3- 12.903 0.83 20.986
7. PM10= 1.56 b1+0.51 b4 -9.458 0.789 13.156
8. PM10= 0.64 b2+1.27 b3-15.226 0.805 20.986
9. PM10= 1.24 b2+0.60 b4-11.170 0.832 11.879
10. PM10= 4.36 b1-3.50 b2 +1.51 b3-12.615 0.810 20.986
11. PM10= 0.41 b2+2.27 b3-0.66 b4-16.174 0.802 20.985
12. PM10= 0.99 b1+ 1.62 b3-0.45b4 -13.481 0.817 20.986
13. PM10= 4.72 b1-4.19 b2+3.07 b3-1.02
b4-13.871 0.834 11.836
This study proves the effectiveness of our model estimates the concentration of PM10 multispectral bands appear on Landsat satellite images with 8 OLI with Kirkuk region. The results show that air pollution can be mapped using satellite information to provide greater coverage area. Further investigation may extend out to improve the accuracy of our algorithms using thermal infrared data lines in combination with groups that can be seen landsat8 OLI.
2.9 Summary
This chapter consists of all information related to the research study. For example, study the information about the PM10 on Klang, Selangor to make sure this research successfully done. This chapter has been covers the implementation remote sensing in PM10 based on previous study. The use of tools in Erdas Imagine, ENVI and ArcGIS software comes with better analysis about the determination of PM10 episode. The detail discussion on methodology will be presented in chapter 3.