CHAPTER 1.
Introduction
1.1 Current Scenario:
The energy crisis are increasing rapidly with attention of the global warming and environmental pollution caused by increased consumption of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) that are exhaustible. Global warming refers to the regular increment in the normal temperature of the Earth’s surface and its environment which has been recognized to the collection of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapour etc. and their concentration are increased continuously due to human activity. Unhappily, there is still no single answer for this worldwide issue. [1]
Electrical energy storage improvements give a view to developing significance for the real clean energy alternatives. [2] The final performance of such innovations is completely dependent upon the properties and characterization of their segment materials. Thus, regarding research, the field of materials science has been at the core of the developments made up to this point and will stay fundamental to future progress. [3]
Among energy storage resources, rechargeable lithium-ion batteries have been analyzed that lithium has the negative reduction potential (- 3.04 V vs. SHE). [4] Rechargeable Li-ion batteries offer the higher energy density among all secondary battery technologies, have command on the movable electronics market and have been controlled the coming era of electric vehicles. With a specific end goal to place this into perspective one simply needs to consider the infinite amount of buyer electronic applications for which lithium batteries are utilized: cell phones, advanced sound players (e.g. iPods), smart phones control devices. [5]
Still, the need to decrease carbon dioxide release from our infrastructures is set to make the electrification of transportation; a request that will include the low weight, secure and cheap batteries and environmental friendly idea of electric vehicles and other transport facilities. Furthermore, with a move towards renewable energy resources, which are permanently unbalanced, energy storage advancements will assume an essential part in regional and expansive large scale energy storage. Accordingly, our future will see a demand for different types of lithium (and sodium) batteries for multiple scope of uses. For hybrid vehicles and convenient electronic gadgets, low power and high capacity batteries, and inexpensive battery are needed. [6] Accordingly, sodium ion batteries are a promising possibility for application in large scale energy storage systems. [14]
1.2 Energy Storage: Batteries
Batteries constitutes energy storage gadgets, interconverting electrical and chemical potential energies. Two types of batteries are used: Primary batteries, those are designed to be used once and disposed of; and rechargeable batteries, which can be energized because their chemical and electrochemical reactions are reversible. [4] A battery consists of various electrochemical cells, which act as a transducer by converting chemical energy into electrical energy. The Battery consists of a positive (cathode) and a negative (anode) electrodes which divided by a separator containing an electrolyte. The positive electrode is a electron donor like lithium, zinc, or lead. The negative electrode is an electron acceptor like lithium cobalt oxide, manganese dioxide, or lead oxide. [7] An electrolyte, that provides pure ionic conductivity between the positive and negative electrodes of a cell.
Fig 1 .: Working of Battery.
The positive and negative electrodes are physically separated by a micro-porous plastic film or gelled electrolyte and different porous inert materials that permit the electrolyte to penetrate through and prevent the short circuit. [7] An external connection between the anode and the cathode allows their chemical reactions to proceed at the same time. The positive and negative electrodes are mentioned to as the cathode and anode during discharge, and oppositely during charge. This process frees electrons, which form the current that can be used for a particular purpose. [6]
While batteries are essentially easy in concept, the progress of their improvement has been relatively slow in contrast to other areas of electronics. Accordingly the battery is regularly considered as the heaviest, costliest and least `environmentally friendly’ part of any electronic gadget. Strong electrolyte batteries have discovered limited use as the power source for heart pacemakers and for use in military applications. The medicinal field uses various battery-worked medical devices to help individuals deal with their therapeutic conditions like circulatory strain measuring gadgets, advanced thermometers, implantable cardioverter defibrillators, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulators.[7] The slow progress in battery development is defended by the absence of appropriate materials for the electrodes and electrolytes, in addition to critical issues in understanding the different electrode/electrolyte interfaces. It is essential to call attention to that sodium based systems would have lower energy density in contrast with lithium based systems because of its inborn lower operation voltages. An additionally promising reality is that the Na-ion diffusion obstructions in solid state compounds are similar to the Li equivalent, showing that Na-ion systems can be aggressive with Li-ion systems as far as discharge/charge rates.
1.3 Challenges for the Sodium-Ion battery:
The urgent requirements for improved energy storage developments in large scale applications that are economically achievable, specifically for the organization of renewable energy sources, are powerful operators for central research in new materials finding and their electrochemistry. Li-ion batteries provide the highest energy density among all secondary battery technologies, have command on the movable electronics market and have been chosen to power the coming era of electric vehicles. However, the concerns in regards to the size and the cost related with Li-ion technology have focused the researchers to find more supportable different energy storage solutions.[9] Other than Li-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries are presently getting major attention. Sodium, is more abundant than the lithium: the sodium collection is evaluated to be 10,320 ppm in seawater and 28,300 ppm in the lithosphere. In the upper mainland crust the concentration of lithium is evaluated to be simply 35 ppm. Therefore, where the quantity of electrode materials is extensively to hit the cost, the utilization of sodium is important. Like Li-ion batteries, Na-ion batteries also an equivalent system can be utilized to store electrical energy as chemical energy in the middle of the cathode and the anode. [4] Normal energy density range from 300-700Wh/kg. Even with the fact that the ionic radii of Na-ion is larger than that of Li-ion, more open structures can be made to support large Na-ion. [9] In this method, to discover new electrode materials with high energy density for enhance the possibilities of SIBs are a serious problem for us. And to upgrade the electrochemical properties through the different approaches for controlling the morphology, structure, and size of the particles, and shaping composites of SIBs. So, the sodium-ion batteries are assumed to be around 10% less costly than commercialized Lithium ion batteries, expecting they both deliver a similar energy density. This is not a simple way like lithium, because the vast majority of the sodium-like electrodes are electrochemically inert; like, Si can’t store sodium.[10] The devices of sodium ion storage and strong electrolyte interphase arrangement are also examined to better understand the behavior of particles and battery materials during de/intercalation.[6]
Table 1: Comparison between Sodium-ion batteries and Lithium-Ion Batteries
Characteristics Na-ion Li-ion
Resources More Abundant than Lithium Limited
Capacity Density 1.16 A h g-1 3.86 A h g-1
Voltage Vs. S.H.E. -2.7 V -3.0 V
Ionic Radius 0.98Å 0.69 Å
Melting Point 97.7°C 180.5°C
Cost Low High
CHAPTER 2.
Literature survey
This chapter is divided into two sections. The first section introduce the technological and current progress on rechargeable Sodium Ion Batteries, focusing on the development of electrode materials. The second section reviews the plans for synthesizing nanomaterials.
2.1 Sodium Ion batteries:
Accordingly, new rechargeable battery systems, for example, sodium ion, sodium metal, magnesium, metal–air, and metal–sulfur batteries are being considered as other options to remove Li-ion batteries. Sodium-particle batteries (SIBs) were initially researched for electrochemical energy storage before 1980.[10] Specifically, Na-ion batteries have engaged in quickly expanding consideration owing not exclusively to the minimal cost of sodium because of its abundant reservoir additionally their better security contrasted with sodium-metal batteries, for example, high-temperature Na– S batteries.[11] In the 1960s, analysts at the Ford Motor Co. grown high-temperature Na-S batteries, in which the cathodes held at 300°C are fluid sodium and sulfur isolated by a ceramic electrolyte (β-alumina), starting examinations concerning the field of ions transport for energy storage. And they are created to provide it on a huge scale for business application in April 2003. [10]
The idea of lithium ion batteries was initially proposed in the late 1970s by Armand and collaborators (Armand, et al., 1979; Armand, 1980), who additionally named the batteries as a “rocker” framework. In 1980, LiCoO2, a lithium containing layered oxide, was created by Good enough as a positive anode material for lithium storage. Then, the sodium containing layered oxides, NaxCoO2, were likewise revealed as positive cathode for sodium particle storage. In the next 20 years, in any case, the investigations of room-temperature sodium Ion batteries were practically suspended, while the improvement of the lithium Ion battery (LIB) continued endlessly from the generation of business lithium Ion batteries by the Sony Co. in 1991. [12]
In 2000, examinations on sodium Ion batteries (SIBs or NIBs) returned into specialists view once more. Stevens and Dahn revealed that hard carbon can convey a high reversible limit of ~300mAh g−1 for sodium Ion storage, near that for lithium inclusion into graphitic carbon, despite the fact that its cycle life was not acceptable for battery applications around then. Hard carbon is presently widely examined as a promising anode material for SIBs. [13] In 2009, NaFeO2 has been considered as a SIB cathode. Zhoa, et al. prove that it is a thermally stable material with stable reversible limit of 85mAh g-1 in a Na/NaFeO2 battery. It is use of the Fe3+/Fe4+ redox couple that is assuming a critical part in growing high-energy and cost effectual SIBs for new generation. [14]
2.1.1 Working Principle of Sodium Ion Batteries:
The arrangement of Sodium Ion batteries is like that of Lithium Ion Batteries, counting the anode (negative terminal), the cathode (positive terminal), the electrolyte with sodium salt, and the separator. The important working of sodium ion batteries are showed in figure 1. At the point when the battery cell is discharged, the electrons are released from the anode, generate about the oxidative chemical responses there, and exchanged through the outside circuit to the cathode, where the reductive chemical responses happen. During the way toward charging, the active pathways of electrons are reversed. Na+ works as the charge transporter which carry from anode to cathode. The electrolyte has high ionic conductivity and low electrical conductivity, going about as an insulator for the electrons and assuming the part of transport medium between the cathode and anode for the alkali ions. The separator is a physical block located between the cathode and anode to prevent direct contact the ions to freely run through it.
Fig. 1: Schematic representation of Sodium Ion Battery. [16]
Significant research on SIBs has so far been dedicated to natural electrolytes since natural electrolytes can give higher cell voltages. However, it is important to reduce the cost of SIBs is to use a liquid electrolyte for SIBs since it would expel the requirement for ultra-dry manufacture and subsequently reduce material and get both expenses. The nonflammability of a fluid system could give better security; and the general performance might be enhanced because of high conductivity of watery arrangements which would, in turn, decrease inside resistance of the battery. [14]
2.1.2 Cathode Materials for Sodium Ion Batteries:
The cathode material for the most part has Na in its synthesis, in this way serving the SIB with the required Na+ charge transporters and prompting to the cell being collected in the released state. These Na are consequently dependably separated during the principal charge, commonly at high potential. SIB cathode materials have been widely examined in parallel to the different SIB anode materials – a few surveys exist. [15]
Layered sodium transition oxides, NaxMO2 where, M is the transition metals, are promising candidate for cathode electrode material for lithium. Delmas et al produced the crystal structures are developed by loading sheets of edge-sharing MO6 is octahedral and a citations. Two fundamental structures have indicated interesting electrochemical capacities, i.e. the O3-type and the P2-type, where Na display octahedral (O) and prismatic (P) coordination, separately. [16]
Layered NaMnO2, one of the primary materials researched, that displays two structures, yet α-NaMnO2 is more stable. It sets in the O3 structure. The electrochemical properties of that was demonstrated that 0.8 Na can be reversibly de/intercalated with capacity maintenance, identical to a capacity of 200 mAhg-1.
P2-Na2/3Mn1/2Fe1/2O2, a standout amongst the most encouraging positive electrode materials for Na ion batteries as far as both supportable and electrochemical presentation, was considered first by Komaba and co-specialists. Despite the low cost of manganese and iron, P2-Na0.67Mn1/2Fe1/2O2/Na conveys a high particular limit of around 190 mAhg-1 and a particular energy more than 520 Whkg-1. This is equivalent to LiFePO4, which shows a practical cathode energy density of around 530 Whkg-1. The higher rate ability of P2-Na2/3Mn1/2Fe1/2O2 contrasted with that of numerous other layered transition metal oxides is related to its smooth charge/release voltage profile, which recommends a simple de/intercalation response and the absence of noticeable basic transitions. After 30 cycles P2-Na2/3Mn1/2Fe1/2O2 holds more than 75% of its primary capacity. [17]
Bruce and associates examined P2-Na0.67Mn1-yMgyO2 (y=0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2) made of earth-abundant components. Na0.67Mn0.8Mg0.2O2 transfer a discharge capacity of 150 mAhg-1 in the energy of 1.5 and 4 V with an excellent capacity of 96% more than 25 cycles.[18] Then again, Komaba and colleagues revealed a shockingly high discharge capacity with regards to a comparative structure, Na0.67Mg0.28Mn0.72O2, when charged to higher voltages. This material carries a discharged capacity of 220 mAhg-1 with voltage of 1.5 and 4.5V, the capacity adjusted from the Mn3+/Mn4+ redox response, despite the fact that distorting happens on cycling. [17]
The capacity of the cell is restricted because of irreversible procedures related with the carbon negative electrode that rise up out of the development of a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) in the first cycle. In spite of the focal points that layered sodium transition metal oxides offer for electrochemical energy storage applications, their air reactivity is a challenge. [19]
2.1.3 Anode Materials for Sodium Ion Batteries:
Sodium metal anodes are regularly utilized on the research facility scale to assess the execution of cathode materials. In any case, the development of dendrites and the security issues identified with sodium metal as of now keep its utilization as a negative cathode for business applications. Thus, the accomplishment of Na-ion batteries is strongly based on the improvement of safe and efficient anode materials.
2.1.3.1 Carbon Based Anode:
Sodium atoms don’t intercalate basically in graphitic carbons, which are the premise of the most widely accepted negative cathode in Li ion batteries. In 1993, carbon based sodium intercalation materials, for example, petroleum coke (greatest Na content = NaC30) and Shawinigan carbon (NaC15) were analyzed by Doeff et al. and cycled utilizing PEO-NaCF3SO3 electrolytes. The subsequent SIB had a capacity of 85 mAhg-1, at the time the most outstanding value ever detailed for electrochemical intercalation of Na utilizing carbonaceous materials. While the SIB utilized a polymer electrolyte, the utilization of liquid electrolytes with SIBs got to be distinctly successful when hard carbon (HC) was utilized as the anode by Prof. Dahn’s gathering.[20] Hard Carbon (HC) is right now the standard negative anode of SIBs. The disordered structure of HC permits sodium ions to be intercalated in the structure in the meantime as it shows a decent reversibility. Because of integrated from pyrolysis of sugar and display a hypothetical capacity of 300 mAhg-1. Recently, another of HC called “C1600”, created from a natural polymer with a fragrant ring and warmth treated in non-reactive gas at 1600°C with a particular surface zone of around 10m2g−1 was considered in SIBs using diverse electrolytes. The best performance was gotten utilizing NaClO4 in EC:DMC as the electrolyte, giving an underlying capacity of 413mAhg-1, 50 cycles, and being more thermally stable than its Li similarity.
2.3.1.2 Non-Carbonaceous Anode:
During the most recent decade an alternative options to the carbonaceous materials have been discovered and a few metal compounds and oxides with high capacities and cyclability have been investigated in Table 2.
Oxide materials electrochemically forming composites with sodium after cycling, for example, Sb2O4, show high particular limits, however have stability issues because of their high volumetric development after alloying. [21] This issue might be lightened, for instance SnO2 nanoparticles implanted in a soft-template mesoporous carbon system have been appeared to show far and away superior execution in SIB than in LIB cells. Altogether these anodes demonstrate a productive alloying/dealloying instrument, a low response potential versus Na+/Na°, a high theoretical limit (ca. 667mAhg-1), a minimal effort, and are ecological friendly. With respect to different materials layered sulfides have been utilized and exhibit up to 400mAhg-1 at 0.84V versus Na+/Na°, yet with terrible cyclability, while intermetallic or composite materials (Sn/C, SnSb/C) have demonstrated limits of up to 544mAhg-1, in any case, the huge volumetric extensions of these materials is yet an obstacle to overcome.[21]
Table 2. Synopsis of SIB anode materials with potential and their capacity (for first charge/discharge cycle). [15]
Anode Materials Potential [V vs. Na+/Na°] Capacity [mAhg-1]
Hard Carbon(HC) 0.005 300
HC C1600 0.005 416
Na2Ti3O7 0.3 178
NaTi2(PO4)3 2.1 130
Sb2O4 0.5 800
SnSb/C 0.2 544
MoS2 1.2 1000
Na15Sn4 <0.2 847
Na3Sb 0.7 660
Na2C8H4O4 0.29 250
Finally, SIB anodes in light of organic compounds have demonstrated some guarantee; for instance disodium terephthalate (Na2C8H4O4) has a particular capacity of 250-350mAhg-1 at an inclusion capability of 0.29V versus Na+/Na°.
CHAPTER 3.
PRESENT STATUS AND DEVELOPMENT
Rechargeable battery systems using Na as an alternative particle have been widely examined to grow less costly and supportable ESSs because of the abundance and simple availability of Na. In this work, we have used boron-doped honeycomb carbon as active anode material.
3.1 Preparation of Anode Material:
Firstly, we take some quantity of boric acid and added it into 250 ml of deionized water with constant stirring. After that take some quantity of carbon source and mixed it into the solution. Mixed the solution properly and add 250 ml ethanol. This solution was heated and evaporate till coming the half of the solution to become concentrated and infiltrate the solution with silica nanoparticles. Then obtained material was heated at very high temperature 900oC for 3hr in presence of Argon gas. After cooling the temperature obtained black powder with silica nanoparticles. Silica nanoparticles has been removed using HF and vigorous washing with distilled water and ethanol dried the sample at 100oC.
Synthesis Procedure:
3.2 RESULTS:
SEM AND TEM:
The morphology of the resulting boron doped honeycomb carbon (HBC) was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) as shown in fig. 2. The SEM and TEM images clearly showing the morphology is highly porous and looking like honeycomb. Such morphology can help for sodium ion battery.
Fig 2.: (a and b) SEM images of B doped carbon, (c and d) TEM images of B doped carbon.
CHAPTER 4.
FUTURE SCOPE
There are two related inquiries that should be tended to: What are the desires for energy storage in future, and what part will batteries play in this future? A current department of energy (DOE) concentrate distinguished various high-esteem open doors for energy storage, including discount energy administrations, incorporation of renewables, business and mechanical power quality and dependability, transportable frameworks for transmission and circulation network support and energy management. Besides, some of these benefits are shared, additionally enhancing the financial matters of energy storage.
The accomplishment of these uses of energy storage will rely on upon how well storage advances can meet key desires. The most important of these are low introduced cost, high durability and dependability, long life, and high round-trip productivity. In the future, the favored energy storage innovations will be made out of minimal cost, effectively gained materials that are created into items through a generally basic assembling process and introduced with a couple of extraordinary requirements. [22] Operations and upkeep expenses are likewise important; these expenses are frequently fixing to the toughness and lifetime of the energy storage arrangement, for which the lifetimes of most resources are measured in decades.
Sodium Ion batteries are financially practical, and if this rising innovation takes after examples like others, cost can be relied upon to decrease as more creation and operational experience is picked up. The technology, which is over 30 years of age, needs to incorporate a portion of the logical advances that have occurred in the outline of materials, making new electrode models and distinguishing new sciences to give safe operation. Additionally, these advances will profit Na-ion technology, which is of developing interest on account of its guarantee as a minimal cost approach for large storage applications.
The current improvements including Na-redox flow and salt redox stream batteries remain as awesome open doors that use existing information of Na-Ion batteries with the benefits of redox-flow systems. The research environment for growing amazing low-cost materials is entrenched, and recent efforts coordinated at low-temperature handling and renewable natural electrodes give the premise to future advances in the field. In any case, it is the volume generation expected for the electric vehicle showcase that can lead to changes in assembling process and give an economy of scale that will realize the lower costs required to make this battery innovation reasonable for energy storage. Another interesting situation is the possibility of recouping Na-ion batteries utilized as a part of car enterprises. The improvement of Na-Ion batteries for business gadgets and car applications empowered this innovation to address reliability, cycle life, security, and different variables that are similarly as critical for stationary energy storage.[22]
CHAPTER 5.
IMPORTANCE AND APPLICATION
Batteries are a piece of our regular day to day existence. Battery is a gadget used to create electrical energy. There are even vehicles designed today that works by electrical energy put away in batteries. Portability is the thing that makes batteries so imperative. Can you predict using your mobile phones, remote control, flashlights, wristwatches and autos connected to electrical openings? It would be so difficult and troublesome. Battery life does not typically keep going long due to regular use of gadgets that require them. Rechargeable batteries can keep going for a considerable length of time or years relying upon how they are utilized. It implies you can save cash and secure nature too. They permit us to work our portable workstation, hand telephones, mp3 players and wake up timers wherever we are, regardless of what the circumstance is. Several visionary kitchen instruments are battery-powered like can openers, coffee makers, milk frothers, pepper mills and kettles etc.
A recently released report from the Department of Energy (DOE) takes a gander at machines utilized as a part of business structures for cooking, cleaning, water warming, and flip side employments.[23]
Fig. 3: Commercial Primary Energy Consumption by End-Use with Energy Saving Technologies.
Applications in various devices:
In Medical Devices:
The medicinal field uses various battery-worked medical devices to help individuals deal with their therapeutic conditions. The most regular cases of these gadgets incorporate pacemakers, amplifiers, circulatory strain measuring gadgets, advanced thermometers, implantable cardioverter defibrillators, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulators, spinal stimulators, fringe nerve stimulators and cranial nerve stimulators.
CHAPTER 6.
Conclusion
Overall awareness for energy storage is driven by the developing markets of the electric vehicle and renewable energy era. As another option to LIBs, SIBs contain a more delicate and reasonable answer for the energy storage issue. The highest capacities have been displayed utilizing layered oxide cathodes with various transition metal oxides, and their cycling rate is further enhanced by lithium substitution. The usage of the anode with sodium-alloying metals is tested by serious volume development which can prompt to terminal structure beating, nanoparticle gathering, and avoidable separator arrangement. A mix of volume touchy alloying materials with carbon improves the long-term cycling stability and keeps up high capacity maintenance. Less work has been finished related to the enhancement of SIB electrolytes because of their intrinsic complexity and absence of a standard cathode-anode coupling. However, recent challenges by a few research bunches provide phenomenal methodologies in accelerating the selection of ideal electrolyte formulations. Additionally studies are necessary for creating useful anode, cathode and electrolyte materials. It is additionally vital to concentrate the electrochemistry of these materials in battery setups so as to accomplish great security highlights, long cycle life, and sensible energy density.
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List Of Figures:
Figure Figure Name Page No.
- Schematic representation of Sodium Ion Battery. 5
- (a and b) SEM images of B doped carbon, (c and d) TEM images of B doped carbon. 10
- Commercial Primary Energy Consumption by End-Use with Energy Saving Technologies. 12
List Of Tables:
Table Table Name Page No.
- Comparison between Sodium-ion batteries and Lithium-Ion Batteries 3
- Synopsis of SIB anode materials with potential and their capacity (for first charge/discharge cycle). 8