Globalisation refers to the concept of increased interconnectivity within the globe, through flows of product, capital, people, information, labour and services. Global commons is a term typically used to describe international, superinternational and global resource domains in which common pool resources are found. Global commons include the earth’s shared natural resources, such as the high oceans, the atmosphere and outer space and Antarctica in particular. Sustainability refers to the ability to maintain something at a certain level, in this sense, maintaining the resources provided by the Antarctic continent.
Fishing in the southern oceans has increased exponentially and been exploited for a variety of fish, such as Antarctic rock cod; his surplus has depleted so much that the species can no longer be fished. Overfishing and whaling are becoming increasingly larger threats to the region. Illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing in the Southern Ocean threatens fish stocks and the marine mammals that depend on them, like minke whales, killer whales and leapord seals. In the 1800s, many whales were hunted for Yankee productions in the USA; early exploitation was far from sustainable. Many species i.e. blue, fin, sei and minke were hunted near extinction and no steps were introduced to reduce or stop the exploitation until too late. However, recently, there has been careful monitering and protection of the Krill, the staple of the Southern Ocean’s marine ecosystem, by the CCAMLR (Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources). If Krill become overfished, for the use of aqaculture feed, it will have a detrimental effect on the survival of the entire ecosystem. Further action will probably require worldwide consumer boycotts of unsustainably caught fish in the Southern Ocean and engagement with landing ports around the Southern Ocean.
In recent years, tourism to the global commons of Antarctica has increased, with almost 30,000 arrival per year. Most visitors arrive by boat and are taken ashore in limited numbers – it is a very expensive destination and very little litter / waste is left behind, in an attempt to keep the environment clean and attempt environmental sustainability: of the landing sites, 95% remain undamaged. Research suggests that marine animals, like penguins and seals, are unaffected by tourists, maintaining both the environmental sustainability of the continent and the social sustainability of its inhabitants. However, occasionally tourism poses a threat to the global commons of Antarctica, for instance the sinking of the M/S Explorer off South Shetland Islands in 2007. The effects of this sinking may have been harmful to the marine ecosystem as the tanker would likely have released oil into the oceans, causing harm to the animals inhabiting those waters.
The continent is thought to be rich in minerals including coal and oil, as well as precious materials such as gold and silver. There is also a growing interest from bioprospectors who search for genetic and biochemical resources from flora and fauna on Antarctica. The pressures to exploit Antarctica’s natural resources on land and in the oceans is likely to increase in the future; thus putting pressure on the Antarctic Treaty which aims to ensure ‘in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue for ever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord’. Mining is banned indefinitely (with a provision for review in 2048 onwards) in Antarctica, under the Environmental Protocol. However, there are deposits of minerals on the Antarctic surface that could be exploited including oil, coal and iron ore. In addition, to the fact that such activities are prohibited, exploiting materials on and around Antarctica would prove to be very expensive, due to the thick ice, inaccessibility due to Antarctica’s remoteness and the very harsh climate.
Bioprospecting refers to the search for plant and animal species from which medicinal drugs and other commercially valuable compounds can be obtained. Antarctica has a biodiversity that has begun to interest companies and bioprospectrors. Antarctica is of interest because little is known about Antarctic biota (the animal and plant life of a particular region, habitat, or geological period) and because of the extremes of environment including temperature, aridity (deficiency of moisture) and salinity mean that biota will have evolved unique characteristics for survival that could be used to produce commercial products. Bioprospectors have been interested in an alkali-tolerant yeast, found in sediments of Lake Vanda, fish, sponges, lichen and mosses as well as some micro-organisms. Antifreeze glycoproteins found in some species of Antarctic fish wchi stop them from freezing could be used to improve fish farm production in cold climates, extend the shelf life of frozen food and improve the preservation of transplanted tissue.Bioprospecting has the advantage of being quite a sustainable use of resources as generally very small samples are required for scientific research meaning that the environmental impact can remain quite small. As there are a limited number of people conducting activities in Antarctica it makes it much easier to monitor bioprospecting activities in situ. In addition, bioprospecting could result in increased funding for basic Antarctic research. Obviously any bioprospecting which involved harvesting of species would have adverse environmental impacts.
Tourism, mining, fishing and bioprospecting are just four activities that could threaten the sustainability of Antarctica in the future. All of these interests have the potential to damage, change or destroy Antarctica as a global commons, and its surrounding oceans if not carefully controlled, managed or banned. However there could be beneficial effects by raising awareness of the fragility of the Antarctic environment and the need for its preservation.