Environmental influences remain as some of the critical contributors to issues of health within different populations around the world. However, one of the leading problems associated with the environment that is becoming a common occurrence especially in some of the developed countries around the world is environmental inequality. Environmental inequality otherwise referred to as ecological injustice, sees to the different exposure to ecological impacts were people within specific socio-economic positions tend to find themselves exposed to a higher level of effects of environmental inequality. According to Allison Shertzer (2016), the Fifth Ministerial Conference on Environment and Health held in Panama in 2010 was one of the key conferences that sought to highlight the issue of environmental inequalities. The inequalities tend to create a situation where people find themselves experiencing severe impacts about the environmental influences, which affect their health significantly.
The issue of environmental inequality extends from the fact that the minority communities in the society find themselves in a position where they are not included when making environmental decisions. Consequently, this creates a situation where a majority of the minority communities find themselves exposed to hazardous environments both within their workplace and home environments. From that perspective, this report will seek to engage in an in-depth analysis of literature to help understand the issue of environmental inequality affecting the United States. The focus of the report is to highlight some of the critical approaches that governments may take in a bid towards improving on the planning process as a way of reducing the overall possibilities of environmental inequality. Additionally, this paper will seek to highlight some of the essential approaches that would be of value towards underscoring ecological disparity as an issue of great concern.
Definition of the Problem
The issue of environmental inequalities began in the 1960s within the United States with activists arguing that the government was not doing enough to reduce the underlying impacts associated with environmental inequalities. Additionally, activists also highlighted the fact that the government was engaged in socio-economic and racial discrimination when dealing with the issue of the environment. That arises from the fact that most of the people from communities of color and those considered low-income found themselves facing challenges on matters of exposure to environmental pollutants. The effect that this tends to have on the population is that it acts as a contributing factor to the high number of cases where communities of color are exposed to chronic health conditions associated with environmental pollution.
In a research by United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA), one of the key aspects to note from the findings was that communities of color, as well as, the low-income earners in the population face a higher risk of exposure to air pollutants, hazardous waste facilities, contaminated fish, and agricultural pesticides. The risks arise from the fact that most of these people tend to work and live in environments that create some form of challenge for them regarding exposure to environmental influences. Additionally, the report indicated that children from African American families tend to have a higher blood lead level when compared to those from white American families. The high lead blood levels arise from the fact that majority of these children tend to face a higher risk of exposure to environmental hazards when compared to their white peers.
Although the United States government has been on the forefront in conducting studies on environmental injustices and inequalities, the government has failed regarding the implementation of practical solutions that seek to reduce the inequity experienced. However, the issue of ecological variation and prejudice has not been unique to the United States, as countries including Germany, Australia, and Canada among others face a similar challenge (Craven, 2018). The governments, in the states mentioned, have highlighted the issue in question focusing on the overall impacts that it is having on the racial minorities, as well as, the low-income earners in the communities. Furthermore, it is evident that environmental inequality remains as a critical issue that society ought to take into significant consideration.
Research Questions
The discussion within this paper will address three fundamental research questions, which are essential towards understanding environmental inequality. The research questions that will direct this paper are: (1) How and why marginalized communities of color are recipients of environmental inequality and (2) How can urban planning and social justice prevent marginalized communities from experiencing environmental inequality through the equitable plan?
The questions, presented above, seek to assess aspects associated with environmental inequality with the intention of ensuring providing basic understanding of what amounts to environmental disparity. Additionally, the questions seek to highlight how and why the marginalized communities specifically including the African American population face a higher risk of environmental disparities.
Literature review
A review of the different literature and sources suggests that environmental inequality and injustices remain as some of the critical issues of concern especially for the racial minority communities living in the United States. According to Kedron (2016), environmental justice places notable emphasis on the need for having to promote public health when focusing on environmental influences that act as contributing factors to poor health outcomes. Environmental degradation has created a situation where communities tend to experience notable impacts from the environment, some of which tend to have adverse health impacts. However, the issue of environmental injustices and inequality indicates that some of the communities tend to have higher risks of the adverse ecological effects when compared to others. Kedron (2016) argues that this has been created from a genetic approach when implementing policies on protection of the populations from increased adverse effects of environmental influences.
Grant, Trautner, Downey, & Thiebaud (2010) argue that one of the critical issues that have created significant concern when dealing with environmental inequality is the distribution of specific social groups within environments that would be categorized as hazardous. A review of the distribution of populations in the United States indicates that the racial minorities, which include the African American and Hispanic people, live within hazardous waste sites and manufacturing facilities. That means that the social distribution of people in the United States reflects on the fact that most of the people from the racial minorities tend to experience higher levels of harmful exposures. The populations exposed including young children, who face high risks of severe health conditions that tend to have fatal outcomes. Accordingly, this support the position that environmental inequality is an issue that would require urgent intervention as a way of ensuring that the populations are protected from hazardous environments.
As part of supporting this position, Morello-Frosch & Shenassa (2006) argue that the low income and minority neighborhoods bear the brunt of environmental hazards considering that most of these neighborhoods are within some of the most polluted ecological areas within the United States. That can be seen in cities such as Chicago, Detroit, Orlando, New Orleans and New York among others. Morello-Frosch & Shenassa (2006) indicate that the critical factor contributing to this situation is lack of proper planning where the racial minorities and low income earning populations expected to live in ‘ghettos’ or the ‘hood’. However, that is not the case when dealing with white Americans, as well as, those considered as being wealthy, as they tend to live in environmentally-safe neighborhoods surrounded with green parks.
In a study conducted by Newell (2016), the leading aspect to help understand the extent of the issue is the proximity indicator, which seeks to evaluate the proximity of the communities to environmental hazards to determine whether the society is experiencing ecological inequality. According to the findings, Newell (2016) argues that most of the neighborhoods that are predominantly white regarding their racial composition tend to be well positioned away from environmental hazards. The state and local governments tend to create suburbs that can accommodate white American populations, as well as, high-income population. On the other hand, his findings suggest that the proximity of the low income and minority neighborhoods to hazards is significantly high. Most of these neighborhoods are within business environments where industries operate releasing pollutants into the background. Additionally, these neighborhoods are within environments that are used as dumping sites for toxic waste, thus, creating an issue in dealing with the environment inequality in the United States.
Pellow (2013) indicates that one of the critical factors that have played a key role in such environmental inequalities is the property values considering that properties within the suburbs are of higher importance when compared to those within commercial environments or those around dumping sights. Economic inequality creates a situation where most of the African American people tend to lack adequate employment, which would be of value towards ensuring that they can afford to live in better environments. Therefore, this forces African Americans to live within environments that expose them to notable health hazards considering that this is the only environment that they can afford. Pellow (2013) argues that this seeks to highlight the fact that economic inequalities tend to have a high relationship to environmental disparities based on the overall levels of exposure for the populations.
Greenberg (2017) indicates that one of the critical issues that have acted as a contributing factor to the high environmental inequality levels has been the striking disparities regarding race and class in the society. That created a situation where a majority of the people from the racial minority communities tend to experience a higher possibility concerning exposure to environments that would be considered as hazardous. Hassan, Zaman, & Gul (2015) argue that although researchers and activists have been on the forefront of highlighting environmental issue, implementation of a practical solution has been overlooked considering that the fact that governments fail to understand the overall impacts of environmental issues on people.
The critical issue when dealing with environmental inequality reflects on the fact that environmental pollutants tend to have adverse health effects for the people exposed to such environments. Furthermore, Morello-Frosch, Pastor Jr, Porras, & Sadd (2002) argue that the chance that people will find themselves exposed to adverse health impacts is significantly high in cases where the people are from communities of color in the United States. For example, the likelihood that an African American would be exposed to an environmental hazard is much higher when compared to the possibility of a white American’s exposure to the same danger. That comes from the failing to adopt useful environmental policy frameworks. During the implementation of environmental policies, governments tend to focus their attention on environments involving white Americans while simultaneously ignoring the needs of the African American population.
Bell & Ebisu (2012) argue that one of the critical aspects of focus when dealing with the issue of environmental inequalities is being able to distinguish between ecological disparities and economic disparities. Although the two types create a situation where communities of color experience some form of oppression, both reflect on different aspects, as environmental inequality reflects solely on the fact that the differences touch on environmental influences. The reflection on the ecological bias as a social issue will be of value in ensuring that the government understands its role in moving towards building environments that protect all its citizens. Bell & Ebisu (2012) argue that extent of the environmental inequality impacts highlight the needs for the government to change its strategic approaches regarding ensuring that it builds on the idea of promoting ecological equality for all individuals.
Communities of Color as Recipients of Environmental Inequality
In the following section, the focus is answering how and why marginalized communities of color are recipients of environmental inequality. To understand this issue, it is essential to evaluate each of the contributing factors. Some of the reasons how communities of color become recipients of environmental inequality include (1) discriminatory zoning, (2) redlining, and mass media.
Discriminatory Zoning
Discriminatory zoning, otherwise described as exclusionary zoning, refers to the creation of land zones with the aim of excluding specific types of communities from particular environments. In the United States, this practice has been used since the 19th century when the country was experiencing a significant projection towards rapid population growth, especially for minority communities. Through discriminatory zoning, the middle and upper-class populations, which consist of a predominantly white populations, tend to allocate themselves in suburbs, which typically include numerous green spaces. On the other hand, discriminatory zoning creates a situation where minority communities are assigned zones that tend to expose them to environmental hazards. Thus, this acts as one of the ways that minority communities are experiencing ecological inequality.
Redlining
Another way how communities of color are facing environmental inequality is through redlining. Redlining, which is now an illegal practice, refers to a method adopted within the real estate industry where banks and mortgage lenders denied people from specific areas, which have a higher nonwhite population, with mortgages. Which resulted in it becoming extremely challenging and difficult for people from particular areas of town, which are considered to belong to people of color to access mortgages that would allow them to move to environments that are safer and ecologically healthy for them. Nonetheless, it is evident that redlining acts as a contributing factor to support the issue of environmental inequality.
Internal Colonialism
Internal colonialism has created a structured approach towards promoting and projecting political and economic inequalities for the racial minorities within the United States. Which means that most of the people from the communities of color find themselves in a position where it becomes harder for them to achieve some form of economic standing. Meanwhile creating a situation where more people of color tend to lack adequate employment opportunities that would be of value towards projecting them towards financial freedom. The long-term effect that this has had on the minority communities is that it has contributed to a situation where more of the people find themselves exposed to the environmental inequality that would have far-reaching impacts.
Why marginalized communities of color face environmental inequality
There are several reasons why communities of color face environmental inequalities however, this section will focus on (1) the treadmill of production and (2) mass media.
Treadmill of Production
The first notable reason why marginalized communities of color living in the United States suffer from ecological disparities is the treadmill of production. The treadmill of production is a theory that sought to highlight the economic development, which occurred immediately after World War II creating a boom in demand for industries. The high number of sectors have contributed to environmental degradation through dumping of toxic waste, as well as, their utilization of natural resources with due regard of the impacts that this is having on the surrounding communities. For the minority communities, this is a crucial issue of concern, as several cities found themselves exposed to such environments, thus, exposing them to adverse health impacts.
Mass Media and Lack of Equitable Planning
The second key factor that has contributed to the situation at hand is mass media and the lack of equitable planning leading to a situation where people from communities of color find themselves facing a high risk of exposure to environmental inequality. Regarding the issue of mass media, the media has failed to highlight this issue with a majority of the mass media outlets ignoring the plight of the minority communities living within hazardous environments. Mass media creates a situation where most of the people tend to believe in the fact that the government is working towards building an equal platform for all, which is not the case.
On the other hand, lack of equitable planning has created a situation where the neighborhoods associated with the low-income populations and the racial minorities are placed strategically within areas next to industries and hazardous waste. Through proper planning, it would be much easier in not only ensuring that neighborhoods remain safe for marginalized populations but also in ensuring that the industries engage in safe environmental practices. That is expected to create opportunities which reduce the overall levels of ecological inequality within communities of color, which would support environmental equality for all populations.
Planning and Social Justice in Promoting Environmental Equality
Proper planning and social justice will help prevent marginalized communities from experiencing environmental inequality by working towards ensuring that the environments within which these communities live, and work are safe from hazards. This creates the need for the evaluation of planning and social justice approaches that would be of value towards promoting environmental equality. Some of the ways how planning may help towards preventing marginalized communities from experiencing environmental inequality include (1) environmental policy adoption, (2) reducing dumping in hazardous habitable environments and (3) environmental conservation efforts.
Planning Approaches
Environmental Policy Adoption
Environmental planning can play a central role in environmental policy development, representation, and implementation that would seek to ensure that every individual is afforded a safe environment that does not expose them to the high possibility of environmental hazards. Through proper environmental planning, it would be easier to establish the extent to which environmental policies are expected to affect the society in general. Furthermore, it would be aid governments in determining how the communities of color would benefit from such environmental policies regarding exposure to a safe environments.
Reducing Dumping in Habitable Environments
Through equitable planning, the government may take up an essential approach towards ensuring that manufacturing companies and industries understand their roles in the conservation of the environment. Thus, this would create an avenue from which companies and industries would engage in proper waste management measures, thus, reducing the possibilities of dumping toxic waste into the environment. The long-term effect is that it will create a situation where environments with the low-income populations and racial minorities live are safe for human habitation. Ultimately, this would mean that people would not only achieve environmental equality but would also assist in moving towards reducing communities of color exposure to adverse health effects from environmental influences.
Environmental Conservation Efforts
On the other hand, proper environmental planning will be of value towards ensuring that state and local governments adopt active environmental conservation efforts including the planting of trees, as well as, the creation of green spaces within neighborhoods where low-income populations and racial minorities live. In most of suburbs, the open green spaces and planting of trees has been of value towards ensuring that environments remain safe for human habitation especially in promoting a high quality of air. By planting trees, the state and local governments are creating a situation where local populations find themselves exposed to safe environments that seek to define the quality of air (Taylor, 2014). Ultimately, this would mean that individuals living in these environments would achieve better outcomes in their move towards ensuring they live in favorable areas.
Social Justice Approaches
Alternatively, some of the social justice approaches that would help prevent marginalized communities from experiencing environmental inequality include: (1) creating social inclusivity, (2) empowering the minority community and (3) balancing sustainable environmental practices.
Creating Social Inclusivity
The first social justice approach that would help towards ensuring that communities of color achieve success in their progress towards promoting ecological equality is social inclusivity. That means that communities of color will be given an opportunity from which to live within the suburbs at an affordable price as a way of ensuring that the communities remain integrated. Additionally, this will also mean that lenders will also seek to ensure that communities of color receive mortgages that would be of value in allowing them to live in such social environments. The ultimate impact is that it will create the need for the government to work towards promoting environmental equality for all individuals regardless of the existing differences.
Empowering of the Minority Community
Empowerment of the minority communities would mean that the people from the minority communities would be in a better position from which to get employment, which is one of the critical issues that created notable disparities. Additionally, people from communities of color would be in a better place to access funding and financing that assist them in building themselves and their communities up through economic development opportunities. Ultimately, this would mean that the people would be in a better position from which to achieve economic empowerment. Thus, this would elevate people of color to higher social status in which their communities maintain their social position within the community.
Balancing Sustainable Environmental Practices
The third critical approach that would be of great value in dealing with environmental inequality is creating a balance regarding sustainable ecological practices. An example would include the idea of engagement in the recycling of waste materials including plastic in a step toward making other products. The communities of color would not only benefit from the practices regarding environmental equality but will also help considering that they will have adequate opportunities. Furthermore meaning that communities of color would be able to establish a systems, coalitions and networks they would work towards ensuring that their environments remain safe for human habitation.
Conclusion
In summary, environmental inequality remains as a critical issue of concern in the United States taking into consideration that minority communities find themselves exposed to adverse impacts associated with a wide array of environmental problems. The issue of ecological inequality has been created from a situation where the state and local governments fail in their step towards creating safe environments for the minority communities. Most of these communities find themselves living in neighborhoods that are close to hazardous material dumping sites or industries that increase the possibility of their exposure to adverse health impacts. Although the United States government has been on the forefront in commissioning studies that seek to evaluate the effects that environmental inequality is having on minority communities, it has failed to implement adequate policy measures.
A review of the distribution of populations in the United States indicates that communities of color, which include the African American and Hispanic people, live within hazardous waste sites and manufacturing facilities. That can be seen in cities such as Chicago, Detroit, Orlando, New Orleans and New York among others. The state and local governments tend to create suburbs that can accommodate white American populations, as well as, high-income population. Economic inequality creates a situation where most African American people lack adequate employment, which would be of value towards ensuring that they can afford to stay in better environments. The possibility that an African American would be exposed to an environmental hazard is much higher when compared to the possibility of a white American’s exposure to the same danger.