The purpose of this report is to identify the ways through which air quality is being monitored in Canada, and the implications on health that arise as a result of poor air quality. In particular, this report focuses on the Indigenous communities in Northern America, namely the First Nations, Métis and Inuit communities.
It is well documented that Indigenous communities face disproportionately greater disadvantages in terms of health as compared to their non-Indigenous counterpart. One of the indicators used to assess health is air quality, as it correlates to respiratory health. In Canada, high levels of air pollutants are recorded every year. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Canada ranks near the bottom of all OECD countries in terms of total emissions of smog-causing pollutants. Despite the federal’s attempt, there has been little progress in reducing air emissions (Regulatory Framework for Air Emissions, 2018). Furthermore, due to the location of reserves that tend to be remote and situated in close proximity to industrial sectors, and/or their limited access to healthcare facilities, poor air quality is more prominent for Indigenous communities. The high concentrations of pollutants have direct implications on the health and wellbeing of Indigenous peoples.
Methodology
This report presents the findings on air quality from a collection of sources; including research published in scholarly journals, government publications, and websites.
Firstly, the environmental scans makes an analysis of the Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) which is used in Canada to collect data on common pollutants. The environmental scan then describes air quality in relation to Indigenous communities’ and the health implications that arise from the respective findings. Subsequently, this paper will outline some of the measures taken at a federal level to address the issue of air pollution and what is being done on a community-level. Finally, some propositions will be made that will highlight how interventions can better convey to the need of Indigenous communities, understand health from their perspective and epistemology and ultimately improve their health and wellbeing.
AIR QUALITY HEALTH INDEX
Air pollution is a problem in Canada, that affects both larger and smaller communities. This is not only applicable to the larger cities and urban spaces, but is also valid to more rural and coastal regions, especially Indigenous reserves that tend to be located downwind from industrial sectors or in close proximity (West Coast Environmental Law, 2005).
To assess pollution, air quality is monitored by collecting and assessing data for common air pollutants, which are: particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ground-level ozone, which is then published and made accessible to the public through the Air Quality Health Index (AQHI) (Bertazzon & Underwood, 2018).
The AQHI is based on a combination of health risks from each of the pollutants mentioned above. It is interpreted by reading a scale ranging from 1 to 10+ that determines the health risks from low health risk, to moderate, high, and very high. Hence the aim of the AQHI is to communicate to the general population information about the quality of ambient air, as well as provide advice to minimize the risks due to air pollution accordingly (Monteiro et al., 2016). Another usage of the AQHI is to determine which communities have better air quality relative to others. (Hasselback & Taylor, 2010). By comparing values, priority can then be given to regions that are at higher risks.
According to Environment and Climate Change Canada, in the past two decades, there have been declines in overall ozone levels, and industrial emissions of sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, volatile organic compounds, dioxins, and carbon monoxide. Nonetheless, it is important to keep monitoring these pollutants, that are expected to rise with the effects of climate change (Bell et al., 2007).
Health problems associated with ground-level, which is monitored using the AQHI, include asthma, cardiovascular and respiratory mortality, and impaired lung development (Bell et al., 2007). The other pollutant monitored by the AQHI is nitrogen dioxide. The health implications are similar to that of ozone, whereby nitrogen dioxide induces respiratory problems, inflammation, but also tumour-promoting and carcinogenic effects (Newhook et al., 2016).
The third and last pollutant measured by the AQHI is particulate matter. This is of concern because, it is an exception to the otherwise downward trend of pollutant levels. This source of air pollution arises from the use of fuel in agriculture, construction operations, and emissions from paved and unpaved roads that has led to significant increases in particulate matter less than 2.5 in diameter (PM2.5). Particulate pollution is found to be the most widespread form of air pollution in British Columbia (West Coast Environmental Law, 2005).
This is critical since the presence of particulate matter was found to be of greater danger to human health than that of ground-ozone level, and other common pollutants (Kim et al., 2015). The suspended particles varies in size and contain various compounds ranging from nitrates, sulphates, organic compounds, and metals. These particles are able to travel in the air, and exposure to particulate matter has various health risks. Depending on the size and nature of the particles, it can enter and deposit onto the respiratory tract and result in respiratory diseases. According to Kim et al., (2015), mild problems include dyspnea, coughing and wheezing. On the other hand, more severe problems include chronic heart and lung disease, as well as a positive correlation to diabetes.