Geographically, the Indian Ocean is situated between the two bigger oceans, thus serving as a natural conduit for most of the traffic from the Atlantic to the Pacific and vice versa . It joins the Atlantic Ocean from the Southern tip of Africa up to the shores of Antarctica. The borders of the Indian Ocean have been delineated by the International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO). The meridian of Cape of Tasmania (147”E) forms the boundary line between the Indian and the Pacific Oceans while the meridian of Cape Town (18” 22’E) forms the dividing line between the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean. In the South, it extends to the Antarctic continent from where it merges with the Atlantic and the Pacific. The northernmost limit of the Ocean reaches up to 30” North to include Red Sea and the Persian Gulf .
14. Size and Dimensions. The Indian Ocean, with an area of 68.56million square.kilometers, is the third largest body of water in the world and covers about 20% of the earth’s surface . It is bounded by Asia on the North, on the West by Africa, on the East by Australia, and on the South by the Southern Ocean or, depending on definition, by Antarctica. The Indian Ocean is known as Ratnakara, “the mine of gems”, in ancient Sanskrit literature and as Hind Mahasagar in Hindi and other Indian languages. The Indian Ocean is nearly 10,000 kilometers wide at the southern tips of Africa and Australia, has an average depth of 3,741m (12,274ft) and a maximum depth of 7,906 m (25,938 ft). The ocean’s continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres (120 miles) in width. .
15. Peculiarities. The Indian Ocean includes Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Flores Sea, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Java Sea, Mozambique Channel, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Savu Sea, Strait of Malacca, and Timor Sea. The many islands in the Indian Ocean include Coco Islands, Andaman Islands, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Diego Garcia, Seychelles and Mauritius. And the sea ports include Chittagong in Bangladesh; Trincomalee, Colombo and (Hambantota – planned) in Sri Lanka; Freemantle in Western Australia; Visakhapatnam, Cochin, Karwar in India, Gwador and Ormara in Pakistan, Port Louis in Mauritius, Port Victoria in Seychelles, and Phuket in Thailand.
16. An estimated 40% of the world’s offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The Indian Ocean is a major sea lane connecting Middle East, East Asia and Africa with Europe and the Americas. Boasting rich living and non-living resources from marine life to oil and natural gas, Indian Ocean is economically crucial to Africa, Asia and Australasia, the three continents bordering it, and the world at large. The Indian Ocean is a critical waterway for global trade and commerce. This strategic expanse hosts heavy international maritime traffic that includes half of the world’s containerised cargo, one third of its bulk cargo and two third of its oil shipment. Its waters carry heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia, and contain an estimated 40% of the world’s offshore oil production
17. Choke Points. The Ocean contain critically important access waterways facilitating international maritime trade – the Suez Canal in Egypt, Bab-el-Mandeb (bordering Djibouti and Yemen), Straits of Hormuz (bordering Iran and Oman), and Straits of Malacca (bordering Indonesia and Malaysia) and Lombok and the Sunda Straits. These ‘chokepoints’ or narrow channels are critical to world oil trade as huge amounts of oil pass through them. Any disruption in traffic flow through these points can have disastrous consequences. The disruption of energy flows in particular is a considerable security concern for littoral states, as a majority of their energy lifelines are sea-based. Since energy is critical in influencing the geo-political strategies of a nation, any turbulence in its supply has serious security consequences. Given the spiralling demand for energy from India, China and Japan, it is inevitable that these countries are sensitive to the security of the sea lines of communication (SLOCs) and choke points of the region .
Strategic Paradigm
18. Geo-Strategic Importance. From a geostrategic perspective, the Indian Ocean is becoming more and more important in the 21st century. The unipolar world that had emerged post-Cold War era is changing to one, where Asian nations such as China and India are gaining in prominence . The production of crude oil and global reserves of gas in the region will remain a critical feature of the geo-strategic environment of the Indian Ocean. The rapid growth of intra-Asian and Euro-Asian trade and the rise of India and China, and the criticality of its Sea Lines of Communication to the global economy have resulted in the Indian Ocean gaining importance in geopolitics. The emergence of economic power houses that are reshaping the global order and the consequent interest of the world in general and the industrialised nations in particular, have made this region the pivot of world affairs. The ability to control the vital chokepoints leading to or from the Indian Ocean to influence the affairs of the world, provide the countries of this region with immense strategic leverage.
19. Competition for Influence and Resources. The Indian Ocean Region contains some of the world’s fastest growing populations and economies, such as India and Indonesia. While not an Indian Ocean Region state, China is also dependent upon for energy, and seeking to influence, the Indian Ocean Region. These dynamics have created a growing sense of ‘energy nationalism’, in which states compete for access to increasingly scarce energy resources . It is in this context that extra regional/ regional powers, India and China in particular have sought to gain greater influence in the region. In addition to energy considerations, there is competition and the potential for intensified competition between Indian Ocean littorals seeking to attain greater shares of the region’s fisheries and fresh water resources.
20. Regional Turbulence. While the geopolitical and geo-economic interests of extra-regional powers such as the US, the European Union nations, Japan, and China are more prominent in IOR, regional states and non-state actors also increasingly influence regional and global affairs. The emerging trends particularly piracy and armed robbery demand regional and extra-regional attention in the Indian Ocean Region. Indeed, the development in the region, now reverberate far beyond the Indian Ocean’s shores. Overall, the Indian Ocean Region is the most politically troubled and potentially combustible area of the world .
21. Strategic Construct. There are many reasons for the Indian Ocean strategic importance, but the most compelling is its centrality to world trade. The Indian Ocean connects the Middle East, East Africa, and East Africa with Europe and the Americas, and links the world with the oil-rich Arabian Gulf area, an especially crucial function foe a world largely dependent on hydrocarbon energy. The economic rise of the Asia-Pacific has turned the IOR into an economically vibrant area; it reinforces its vital role as a global trade crossroad. Over 90% of international trade is carried out by sea, and of that over half traverses the Indian Ocean. In monetary terms, over US$ seven trillion in international trade crosses the Indian Ocean every year on more than 23,000 ships, accounting 50% of all container traffic and a full 70 per cent of the global oil and gas exports. Asian economies are heavily dependent on oil transiting the Straits of Malacca, which provides 80 percent of the oil imported by China, Japan, and South Korea. Seventeen million barrels oil pass through the Strait of Hormuz, which valued at roughly US$ 1.9 billion accounts for 90 per cent of the Middle East exports. Another 15 million barrels per day, or US$ 1.65 billion, pass through the Straits of Malacca, and 4.5 million barrels per day, or US$ 500 million pass through the Suez Canal. For this reason, its SLOCs are critical to the global economy as a whole, but especially for the nations of the Middle East, Africa, Asia and Australia, including the rising powers of India and China .
22. The Indian Context. The Indian Ocean has great strategic importance for India. The geo-strategic nature of the Indian Ocean has given India a commanding position. From the Eastern coast of Africa and the shores of the Persian Gulf to the Strait of Malacca, no other country rivals India’s dominant location in the Indian Ocean. The strategic importance of this ocean is further enhanced by the fact that it is accessible from the West and the East through narrow straits only. The Red Sea and the Persian Gulf are the narrow outlets in the west while in the east; there are the Strait of Malacca and the Timor and Arafura Sea. The Indian Ocean has limited outlets. Before the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the only contact of littoral states of the Indian Ocean with the western countries was via Cape of Good Hope by circumnavigating the whole continent of Africa.
23. The Indian peninsula with a coastline of 7,500km juts out into the Indian Ocean. 80% of India’s trade is through Sea route passes through Indian Ocean. 85% of oil and gas is imported through Indian Ocean into the country. Fishing and tourism depends on it due to huge marine re-courses it spreads prosperity in coastal plains of India. Mumbai 26/11 blasts and recent 1st January’2015 mid-sea blast of fishing boat incident have heightened security threat to the country through the coastal areas and seas. Industrial development, commercial growth, and stable political structure are not possible unless the nation’s shores are protected. The Indian Ocean is vital for managing better relation with neighbours like Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Sri-Lanka, Maldives, Seychelles, Mauritius, Iran, etc. To maintain safer trade routes, and induce Energy Security for every party, India has recently pitched to declare Indian Ocean Region as ‘Region of Peace’ at Galle dialogue (2014-Sri-Lanka), which provides enough reason that Indian Ocean is critical to India and the world .
24. On the Eastern side there are two outlets – one through the islands of Indonesia and the second is the south of Australia. The Indian Ocean can be choked any time by controlling these outlets. Since the Indian Ocean and the countries surrounding it are very rich in natural resources, such a possibility has considerably enhanced the geopolitical strategy of this ocean. In spite of above mentioned geopolitical limitations, the Indian Ocean has never been a barrier between the countries. On the contrary it has served as a great linkage between the countries lying on its coasts and even further beyond. We can reach West Asia, Africa and Europe from the west coast and South East Asia, Far East and Oceania from the eastern coast. The Indian Ocean, thus, bridges a gap between East and West. This ocean is encircled by 46 countries (27 littoral including Australia, 7 islands countries and 12 landlocked countries, with great diversity in almost every respect; shape, size, people, resources, economy, polity, culture.
25. Resource Wealth. The Indian Ocean is endowed with rich variety of natural resources of which mineral and power resources as well as food resources are very important. Some of the resources are briefly described as under:-
(a) Aggregates. Marine aggregates comprise sand, gravel or shell deposits and are used primarily in construction industry. They are, at present the most important commodities mined offshore, both quantitatively and by value. They are mainly found on the continental shelves. Offshore calcareous deposits are formed by fragmentation of shells by waves and currents. These are used for manufacturing cement.
(b) Placers. Placer deposits are concentrations of heavy, resilient, and chemically resistant minerals eroded from existing ore bodies by mechanical weathering. Such deposits include native gold, native platinum, tin, titanium, magnetite (iron), zirconium, monozite (thorium) and gemstones. In the Indian Ocean, such placers are found along the coasts of Sri Lanka, India, Australia, Malaysia and Indonesia. Sri Lanka, India and Australia have titanium sands, whereas Malaysia and Indonesia have tin deposits. Indonesia is one of the main areas in the world where offshore placers are mined. Primary tin deposits occur in granitic rocks onshore and heavy minerals extend offshore.
(c) Polymetallic Nodules.
(i) Polymetallic nodules are those which contain several metals, the important metals being manganese, copper, nickel, cobah, etc. They occur in many shapes, sizes and forms and are generally friable. Manganese nodules were first discovered on the 1872-76 scientific voyage of Challenger, but systematic exploration and detailed studies only started in late 1950s when it was realised that nodules might be a source of nickel, copper and cobalt. Several investigations in the mid 1960s reported finding enrichment of manganese and iron in the sediments of wide areas of the ocean floor on the East Pacific Rise axis, and since then similar enrichments have been found in Indian Ocean also, especially along the mid-Indian rise.
(ii) India has obtained the technology of exploiting these mineral nodules from the ocean beds. The United Nations has granted permission to India to exploit the polymetallic nodules over an area of 1, 50,000 sq km in the Indian Ocean. India is the first country to obtain such a right. The National Institute of Oceanography, Goa has played a leading role in the research and development of this mining technique. Metalliferous nodules containing zinc, copper and silver have been discovered in Red Sea. Seafloor phosphorite contains phosphate mineral which is used for the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers and certain phosphate based chemicals.
(d) Seafloor phosphorite was first discovered as nodules in dredge samples obtained from the Agulhas Bank off South Africa during the Chellenger Expedition of 1872-76 and have since been found elsewhere. They occur mostly on the continental margins and upper parts of the continental slopes at depths of less than 500 metres. They are normally confined to the zone between 40”N and 40”S latitudes.
(e) In the Indian Ocean phosphorite deposits occur along the coast of Arabian Peninsula, east coast of India in the Bay of Bengal, near Andaman and Nicobar Islands and in the south of Sri Lanka. Phosphorites occur widely on Agulhas Bank off South Africa. It has become one of the most intensely studied areas of the world. The total reserves are estimated at 450 million tonnes.
(f) Estimates of reserves suggest that recoverable nickel and copper are of the same order as known land economic resources. But the current level of technology is not competent enough to exploit these resources.
(g) Specialised mining systems have to be developed to recover the nodules without lifting the underlying sediment from depths in excess of 4000 metres. The environmental conditions of potential mine sites and possibilities of mineral extraction have been ascertained.
26. Demography. The Indian Ocean region is home to most of the world’s Muslim population as well as India, one of the world’s likely “rising powers.” The Indian Ocean also is home to the world’s two newest nuclear weapons states, India and Pakistan, as well as Iran, which most observers believe has a robust program to acquire nuclear weapons. In addition, the region constitutes one of the key centers of gravity of international terrorism – – “the broad incubator of terrorism” in the words of one conference participant. While India and some a few of the other littoral states appear to be on a path of sustained economic progress, most of the region is characterized by high levels of poverty. The Indian Ocean region suffers from a high level of international and internal conflict and is a key venue for international piracy. It also is the locus of some 70% of the world’s natural disasters.
27. Perhaps no other Ocean is as geo-strategically located as Indian Ocean, as the centre of the world’s strategic and economic centre of gravity, flanked by some of the most important regions of the world, able to seriously endanger international peace and security, but at the same time also has the capability to contribute to the global prosperity. Consequently security of the region is a concern with the littorals as well as many extra regional powers. There are profound changes taking place as far as the geostrategic environment of the Asia Pacific is concerned with the rise of new power centres, China, India with their blue water navies, Japan, Australia and continuing presence of USA. The Indian Ocean Region is faced with several non-traditional threats to security in the form of piracy, maritime trafficking, maritime terrorism and various others. It is thus a crucial stage that, unless managed skilfully, can have debilitating effect on regional peace and security. Therefore the central theme of the paper would be to scrutinize the challenges for India in the IOR from both traditional and non-traditional angle and further, it would enumerate initiatives, bilateral and multilateral institutional mechanisms that needs to be evolved to deal with the challenges .