Mosaics
Kylie Palmer
ARTS 2351 02: Art History
November 16, 2017
Mosaics are an art form made up of mostly tiny pieces of materials such as glass or stone of various colors to create a larger image or pattern. Originating hundreds and thousands of years ago, mosaics have always been a popular way of portraying images, decorating a space, and showing devotion to whomever the patron or artist admires. They remain popular today as well, although they were most popular during the Greek and Roman period. In these ancient times, various materials were used, the methods of creating them were established, techniques were perfected, and the art lives on.
By definition, mosaic is a “decoration of a surface with designs made up of closely set, usually variously coloured, small pieces of material such as stone, mineral, glass, tile, or shell.” These materials are applied to a surface that will allow the material to adhere to it such as mortar and is left to dry until the masterpiece is complete. There are thought to be multiple originations of the word mosaic, with one being from the terms mousaikon and musaicus, terms used in the Byzantine period, and opus musivum. Each of them reference the art work that is called mosaic in the modern day and those that resemble mosaic works in ancient history.
The materials used to create mosaics has changed over time and it is not unusual to incorporate many into one work. An overall list of the materials that have been used in mosaics include: pebbles, stones, limestone, porphyry, alabaster, marble, glass, gold, silver, ceramic, and other materials common to the areas of their creation. Originally, uncut pebbles were used, then later, cut pebbles were used to create specific shapes for an image. Stone was a very popular material to use in the Greek and Roman period, and some were painted to create the desired coloring for an image. Glass first appeared in the Hellenistic period and became popular again in the Byzantine period. Mirror glass was popular for its reflections and illusionistic effects on the viewer. Gold and silver tesserae were used for the same effect. Materials used for contouring were often made of terracotta or ceramic and added depth to the mosaics. The various materials were intricately chosen to give the desired effect by the artist for each work.
The process of creating a mosaic begins with preparing the surface which the image will be placed on. In the Greek and Roman time period, this was done by excavating ground and pouring cement for floor pieces, and for wall pieces, two layers of mortar was spread onto the wall. After preparing the surface, there are two methods of applying the tesserae—a direct method and an indirect method. Placing the tesserae directly onto the mortar or cement by hand or with a small tool is considered to be the direct method. When the tesserae are arranged on another surface that has been prepared with a guided drawing of the image and then placed face down on the mortar or cement to be transferred, it is considered to be an indirect method. After the materials have been adhered to the surface, another mortar or filling may be used to fill in the space between the tesserae and smooth the image. Then it is left to dry. This process is an ancient one, but it continues to be used today.
It is unknown exactly when the mosaic art form began. There is one belief that it was simply influenced by decorations used on floors and walls, such as carpets and tapestries, that were then desired to become permanent décor through the use of solid materials adhered to a floor or wall throughout time, and there is another opinion that the true art form began with the Greeks during the Greek and Roman period when techniques were perfected. Before then, it is thought by some scholars that it was just dabbling in the arts. However, there have been pieces recovered from the 8th century BCE that are considered some of the oldest forms of mosaic art. These pieces were made of very primitive materials, and it was not believed that there was a true method to the art at this time.
Mosaic began to become a serious and popular art form in the Greek and Roman periods. It was during this time that techniques were perfected, and the works of art began to replicate paintings based on color and style. Wanting to adopt a very art appreciative culture, the Romans took previously used ideas from mostly the Hellenistic period and also periods before and introduced mosaics profusely in their floors, architecture, churches, and homes. It is during this time period that it became a common decoration used in more domestic settings. More intricate and extravagant art was used in the important rooms of buildings, while a simpler version of mosaic was used in rooms or buildings of less importance. Simpler versions tended to use larger pieces of material to create less complicated designs. As the demand for mosaics was on the rise, it is thought that the Romans realized that more functional pieces in floors especially, would be a better idea as opposed to very intricate pieces. Because of this, mosaics went from very colorful works of art to more monochrome works. It is also during this period that sacred images and images of religious importance began to appear on walls, especially in churches.
Moving into the Early Christian period, wall mosaics became more common and popular. Images of “objects and animals [that] symbolize[d] the Good Shepherd… and scenes from the story of Jonah, symbolic animals, such as the deer and the lamb, and a representation of the bread and wine” appeared during this period. Another popular transition occurred in the Early Christian period involving the use of glass to create mosaic art. There came a time when practically the only material used was glass, and this created illusionistic effects and employed variation in colors again.
In the Byzantine period, there was a shift from mosaics made of solely glass, to the accompaniment of silver and gold which added depth to the images. It is reported that in architecture, the windows were made smaller in size, and the number was even reduced to make room for an abundance of mosaic images. During this time period, a new way of arranging the materials in a mosaic was created called tilting tesserae. It involved tilting the pieces of usually gold material to reflect the light of the space toward the viewer in order to achieve a mesmerizing holy effect in the images of haloes and holy figures. The idea of utilizing light to the patron and artist’s advantages remained strong and persisted through the time when iconoclasm was at its most high. However, during the Late Byzantine period, “the tilting of gold tesserae was abandoned,” colors were dulled, and three-dimensionalism became the new way of expression in mosaics. There was also a shift from wall and floor mosaics to portable icons made of tiny tesserae that could be shared or passed on from person to person. From the Byzantine period through the Renaissance time period, there was a decline in popularity of the art, however, a revival was seen in the mid-19th century. Today the interest in mosaics remains, but works of art are mostly for personal use or decoration rather than as major works of arts to be featured in architecture or major buildings. In modern day, mosaics remain most popular as portable objects similar to the Byzantine period and placed in gardens, exteriors of homes, as decoration for indoor walls, and even as gifts.
In conclusion, mosaics are an art form that has been around for hundreds and thousands of years. They can be made with various materials such as gold, silver, stone, pebbles, and glass, and the process of creating a mosaic is rather simple. This process has been around since about the 3rd century BCE through the Hellenistic, Greek and Roman, Early Christian, and Byzantine periods and remains in use today. It is an art that has decreased in popularity in comparison to the Greek and Roman time period but never has the appreciation for the art been reduced.
Bibliography
Biggs, Emma. The Encyclopedia of Mosaic Techniques. Philadelphia: Running Press, c19999. 10-13.
Pappalardo, Umberto. Greek and Roman Mosaics. New York, NY: Abbeville Press, 2012. 11-13, 15, 17-20, 25-28, 79-82, 85-87, 125-130, 153-157, 167-168.
Wage, Frederick O., and Nordhagen, Per Jonas. “Mosaic.” Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., July 24, 2017. Accessed Nov. 6, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/art/mosaic-art