Josephus was a first-century scholar who initially fought against the Romans during the First Jewish–Roman War until surrendering in 67 CE to Roman forces led by Vespasian. The War, often called the Great Revolt, stemmed from Roman and Jewish religious tensions. The revolt would become a major event in Jewish history and ended after seven years with the fall of Masada in 73 CE. Josephus claimed that the Jewish Messianic prophecies that originally started the First Roman-Jewish War actually made reference to Vespasian becoming Emperor of Rome and conquering the Jews. After Vespasian became Emperor, he granted Josephus his freedom. Josephus assumed the emperor's family name and became a citizen as well as an advisor to Vespasian’s son, Titus. Josephus recorded Jewish history and was most noted for his writings regarding the Great Revolt. Josephus wrote this text for Romans to understand the different Jewish sects which they now presided over, for Jews to better understand their peers, and for future Jews who would use his writings as a primary historical source.
The theological differences between the Jewish sects serve as a guide for the political and socio-economic tensions that existed between the sects. Josephus contends that the Pharisees “have the support of the masses, believe in immortality of the soul and in a combination of fate and free will, and lead a simple way of life” (Hallo, 60). The Pharisees have immense influence in society despite their “common” status, as they believe in punishments and rewards for those who have led lives of vice or virtue. This belief is critical to understanding the Pharisees social status, as it promotes the idea that the Pharisees are seen as the theology of the masses and observe practices that will lead to a positive afterlife. Because of their widespread influence among the community, all prayers and sacred rites were performed according to their exposition. The Sadducees were more of a niche group made up of upper-class Jews who greatly differed in theology from the Pharisees and Essenes. The Sadducees, unlike the Pharisees, do not believe in an afterlife. This core belief is significant, as their following is mostly made up of the “well to-do” members of the Jewish population who enjoy a high status in Jewish society and thus do not focus on living a virtuous
life in return for a heavenly afterlife. Despite their high standing in society and politics, the Sadducees were compelled to follow the direction of the Pharisees as they were the most populated of the sects and disregarding their wishes would likely lead to upheaval from the masses. The Essenes were a small, ultra conservative group of Jews who believed in the “absolute power of God” and lead a life of virtue. The Essenes, who would later be linked to the Dead Sea Scrolls, were far more exclusive than their Pharisees counterparts and were less tied to their earthly possessions than the Sadducees. It can be deduced from Josephus’s text that the Essenes likely formed a lower class in society, the Pharisees a middle class, and the Sadducees a wealthy elite. The Essenes did not look to involve themselves in the affairs of the general population and were rather reclusive which is evidenced by their eventual segregation to desolate areas like Qumran, where they practiced their faith in isolation. The Essenes did not believe in an afterlife per se; they instead believed that the soul was immortal, and they should strive to draw near to righteousness. The Essenes sent offering to the temple, but performed their own sacrifices using their own ritual of purification. Because of their focus on ritual purity, they were barred from the precincts of the temple that were frequented by the other sects, further isolating themselves from the rest of the community. The Essenes could be described as the most communistic of the ancient sects; they devoted themselves to agriculture and held their world possessions common so that a wealthy man “received no more enjoyment from his property than the man who possesses nothing” (Hallo, 60). The Essenes did not own slaves, nor did they bring wives into their community; they instead sought complete ritual purity and solitude.
The fourth school, established by Judas the Galilean, observes Judaism in a way very similar to the Pharisees with some pivotal differences. This group was convinced that God alone was their leader and master and were willing to die as martyrs before submitting to another master. This is especially important because Josephus was writing from the perspective of a house that had conquered the Jews and ruled over all of the sects. Of course, Josephus looked to alienate the sect that proved difficult to his new rulers as they resisted Roman rule and gravitated towards martyrdom. Josephus looked to depict this group as radical in an effort to discourage Jews from other sects from joining their ranks and resisting the Roman authority as they recently had during their revolt. Josephus’s clear biases prove that he is not a reliable source for
objective descriptions of the different sects, despite his involvement in both the Jewish and Roman communities. Josephus had a political agenda as he tried to marginalize a Jewish sect that defied the Roman rule.
Judaism as a culture and as a religion was fragmented and lacked communal cohesiveness. While Jews were still united under their underlying belief in God and observed many of the same traditions, the religious and socio-economic differences among the different sects provides evidence of vast philosophical and theological differences. One could argue that this division of the different sects is what leads to the subsequent rise of Christianity years after this text was written. Although these are all “people of the book”, they have separated themselves into rigid social classes that serve as a point of conflict between the groups. The idea of righteousness further separates the groups as they are not only differentiated in their religious practice; each group believed they were the only ones who worshipped properly and that all other sects were misguided in their views.