I will be defining the ‘early modern period’ as the period from the IV century in which Constantine became emperor until the XI century, in which… Using mostly the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim Caliphates, with a focus on the emperors Constantine the Great and Justinian I, this essay will be exploring the ways in which authority was justified in the early modern period, such as through the use of religion, diplomacy, warfare and the provision of public works. Although there were many ways in which authority was justified, I believe that religion was the most important…
One way and, in my opinion, the most important way in which kings and emperors justified their authority was through the use of religion. It was not only used by some Byzantine emperors to justify authority, but also the Muslim Caliphates. Constantine, who became Roman emperor from 306-337 AD, was known as the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity; according to the Historian Eusebius Pamphili, he had converted during the Battle of Milvian Bridge (312), when he ‘sought Divine assistance’ and instead of praying to a multitude of Gods which previous emperors had done and had an unhappy ending, he thought it was necessary to “honour his father’s God alone” . Constantine’s father, Constantinus I, was claimed by Eusebius to be a Christian who pretended a pagan. While Constantine was praying to God, he had a vision, seeing the words ‘CONQUER BY THIS’ in the sky. It is unsure the extent to which Eusebius’ claims were true, as the Life of Constantine, the main source of Constantine and his religious authority, was a panegyric, meaning that it was supposed to portray him as the ‘the Christian Emperor’; Eusebius saw Constantine as the emperor that was chosen by God and that he had been giving the role of eliminating polytheism and extending Christianity.
Additionally, Constantine was recognised for being the emperor to end the persecutions of Christians, as a result of the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious tolerance and decriminalised Christian worship—a turning point for Christianity. Although the Edict of Milan as an act of genuine faith was disputed by some, I believe that his conversion was genuine and that the Edict was his first act as a Christian, highlighted by his further acts on behalf of Christians and his shift against paganism later in his reign. In terms of the effect Constantine had on Christianity, historians, such as Paul Stephenson, argue that “the historical magnitude of Constantine’s life is explained by one fact: he was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. But Constantine did not make Christianity the official religion, nor was his conversion the reason for rapid growth of Christianity in the fourth century AD.” . I agree with this, as I believe that Constantine cannot be given all the credit for the expansion of Christianity within Byzantium, although his contribution was definitely important, as it was Theodosius I who actually made Christianity the official religion of Byzantium and was known for beginning the persecution of paganism in the 380s and also putting legal restrictions on Jews, which inevitably led to the massive expansion of Christianity.
Christianity not only began to become the most dominant religion in Byzantium, but also became the foundation; the new capital, Constantinople, became the government’s seat along with the religious centre. This was demonstrated by the increasing construction of churches in cities, the most famous being the Church of Hagia Sophia. Unlike the western Roman empire, religion and government were more intertwined; the Emperor had complete authority as he would appoint the patriarch of Constantinople (just below him in power), which meant that the church and the state were combined into one powerful body. Additionally, the emperor’s authority had been justified by religion as not only was he seen as the head of the government, but also the living representative of God and Jesus Christ. Therefore, religion would be used as a way to justify authority in the early modern period.
Not only did the Byzantine Empire use religion as a means to justify their authority, but the Abbasid Caliphate also did. The Abbasid Caliphate were the third of the caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and the one that overthrew the Umayyads, by a movement in favour of rule by the Family of the Prophet. At the time, there was a consensus by many Muslims that a member of the Holy Family should rule; an imam would have to interpret the Qur’an, which would thus give them the divine right to end the violent disputes between the Muslims, and the Umayyads. The Abbasids justified their authority and their revolution (746-750 AD) using religion and bloodline to the Prophet, as they claimed to be descendants of Hashim (a clan in the Quraysh tribe, the tribe which Muhammad was from) and so could claim to be members of the family. This was emphasized by Abu al-Abbas, the first Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate, in his accession speech; al-Abbas makes many references to the Qur’an, showing that he is rightly needed Imam that would give divine guidance and end the tyranny of the Umayyads. His speech also shows his gratitude towards Allah, “Praise be to God” , who has given him the authority to rule. Moreover, “He has specified us as the kin of God’s messenger” and “he created us from the ancestors of the Prophet, causing us to grow from his, and be derived thereby from common origin” highlight that the Abbasid family are members of the Family, which has been legitimised by God, and therefore should be one of Muhammad’s successors. Additionally, not only did Al-Abbas himself, justify his own power but Dawud b. Ali also justified Al-Abbas’ right to rule in the accession speech; “Praise to Him who has caused our enemies to perish and brought to us our inheritance from Muhammad our Prophet” and “He has made manifest among you a Caliph of the clan of Hashim” . This is useful, as it shows that the Umayyads were seen as ‘enemies’ and were greatly unpopular among the people, which they were; there had been huge support for the Abbasid revolution from people of various backgrounds, especially Muslims that were of non-Arab descent, that were under the rule of the Umayyads.
Additionally, emperors justified their authority through the use of warfare and territorial expansion. Byzantium had a professional standing army; however, they had to rely on strategy and technological advancements over strength, as their army was much smaller than those of their opponents. For example, Greek fire (developed in 672) was used in naval battles and was key in saving Constantinople from 2 Arab sieges; it could continue to burn while floating on water as it could continue to burn while floating on water. This technological advancement was essential in the survival of the Byzantine Empire. Moreover, an emperor known for his success in warfare and territorial expansion was Justinian I, the Byzantine emperor from 527-565 AD, who had become emperor with the principal goal of restoring the Roman Empire. This involved recapturing the western half of the empire which had begun to break down into many federate kingdoms from 420-460 and eventually collapsed in 476. As he was a Christian emperor, he considered not only this as his divine right, but also spreading Christianity beyond the boundaries of the empire. He began the restoration by sending out armies to battle against the barbarians that had taken over the west, beginning with the Vandals. Justinian was successful and took back parts of Africa and most of Italy; however, it could be argued that Justinian had taken too much credit for the reconquest as it was in fact Belisarius, his chief-general, who was in command. Procopius, who accompanied Belisarius, was the principal historian of Byzantium in the 6th century and thus provides primacy sources for Justinian’s reign. As Procopius’ work has survived since then, there is more written about Justinian than of his predecessors. The Wars of Justinian focuses on the wars fought by Justinian against Persia, the Vandals and the Goths, as is definitely a useful source for the wars, due to Procopius having been an eyewitness for most of the wars. Justinian’s wars of reconquest had expanded Byzantine Empire to its largest point in history, which is one of the reasons why the pinnacle of Byzantium occurred during his reign and why he was known for “the restoration of the world empire of Rome” . Without discrediting Justinian, there were later emperors that were also success in warfare. Basil I (867-886), the founder of the ‘Macedonian dynasty’ is another common example; not only did he show great ability in running affairs of state and revived imperial authority, he also fought many successful campaigns against the Arabs and the Paulicians. However, although the empire was smaller than during Justinian’s reign, it became consolidated and there was an increase in integration in terms of culture and politics.
Warfare and territorial expansion were also common for the Muslim caliphates;
there were many territorial expansions under all the Muslim caliphates, especially under the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphates, and this was a way in which they justified their power. Whereas Muhammad had only extended power to the whole of the Arabian Peninsula from 622-632, there was increasingly rapid expansion that followed the Rashidun Caliphate (632-661) saw rapid expansion in 25 years. This involved the fall of the Sassanid Empire, the arch-rival of the Byzantine Empire, and the integration of its territory into the caliphate, which also meant that there was a conversion from a Persian to an Islamic population. Furthermore, the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) became one of the largest unitary states in history and one of the few to extend power to three continents: the north of Africa, Europe (Iberian Peninsula or Al-Andalus) and Asia (Arabian Peninsula); it “extended two hundred days journey from east to west, from the confines of Tartary and India to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean” . The fact that the Umayyad Caliphate expanded over such a vast amount of territory, justified their authority as the people in these new Umayyad territories were now subject to their rule and having Islam as their official religion.
Another way in which many kings and emperors justified their authority was by the provision of public works. This included public baths, which increased hygiene and in turn improved health, amphitheatres which were used for events such as gladiator battles, and hippodromes, all which ordinary people would use in their daily lives. However, with Christianity becoming the official religion of the Byzantine Empire during Theodosius’s reign, the empire continued to differentiate itself from the Roman Empire; “where Roman Emperors had built vast baths, markets, or triumphal columns, Byzantine emperors preferred to build churches” , showing the move towards a religious empire. However, typical Roman activities like bathing in public baths and watching large races at hippodromes were also prevalent in daily life during the Byzantine period; the Hippodrome of Constantinople and the rebuilding of the Baths of Zeuxippus, also in Constantinople, by Justinian highlight this. Justinian I was an emperor renowned for being a prolific builder, especially after the Nika Riots (532), which led him to rebuild Constantinople; the riots resulted in the destruction of nearly half of the capital and many deaths. The destruction caused allowed for him to take credit of many new buildings and reparations, including the architectural innovation of the Church of Hagia Sophia, which came to have the largest dome in the world. He also funded many public works projects, including bridges, aqueducts and churches. The Buildings of Justinian (Procopius) praised Justinian as he was portrayed as a Christian emperor who built churches for the glory of God and defences, showing his concern for the people. However, there are some that believe that Procopius’ account of the emperor’s involvement in public works has been exaggerated and that he has been given credit for the achievements of his predecessors . I agree with this
Whether or not his account was exaggerated/whether or not Justinian took credit, it is undeniable that…
• I believe, that
However, as he had connections with Justinian, it would be biased, as he would have to possibly exaggerate in order to portray Justinian in a positive light. Additionally, the fact that Procopius’s Secret History, which had been kept hidden
Not only Justinian but also later emperors were active in public works; Constantine V was key in the reparation of the Aqueduct of Valens, which increased the population and provided some with jobs.
There are many ways in which kings and emperors justified their authority in the early modern: religion was used by …., warfare and territorial expansion was also used …, and also the provision of public works… However, I think that religion was the most important way in which authority was justified, as….
However, it is important to acknowledge that even though the Byzantine Empire had massively shrunken in size by the 11th century, the end of the early modern period, in comparison to the 4th century, the empire became much more consolidated, which meant that it was much easier to control and defend. Whereas, the Muslim Caliphate… (is there any point in this???)