The pagoda was derived from the ancient Indian stupa, a hemispherical commemorative monument. This stupa form was then adopted by Buddhism as an appropriate structure to enshrine the remains and the sacred relics of the king or holy man and was usually the main focal point in Buddhist monasteries (2). The relationship between the religion of Buddhism and the pagoda is explained in Buddhist literature, which states that pagodas were built for the purpose of preserving Sakyamuni’s (3), the founder of Buddhism, remains. According to scriptures, after his death, Sakyamuni’s body was cremated and his fellow disciples discovered that his remains crystallized into shiny and unbreakable beads, rather than turning into ashes (4). This purpose of enshrining was popularized due to the efforts of Buddhist devotees and missionaries to spread and distribute Buddhist relics to the rest of East Asia. The domed-shaped stupa of India spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms as the details from specific regions are gradually incorporated into the overall designing, birthing the creation of the Buddhist pagoda. The decorative crowning ornament of the stupa took on a tower-like and attenuated appearance as the finial of the stupa extended and became more elongated and cylindrical over the years (2).
The freestanding Indian stupas for Buddhist circumambulation can be separated into three sections; the main body, the top pillar and the railings that enclosed the pillar. The main body of the stupa, anda, was a hemispherical dome that derived from Hindu burials, being solid, monolithic and inaccessible for the main of circumambulation (Fisher 28) and unlike other East Asian pagodas, was not made based on any wooden prototypes. The hemispherical dome symbolizes the dome of heaven that encloses the earth (5). Other than that, there is a singular pillar that emerges from the very top of the anda, known as the yashti, and its circular disks of three, known as the chattra. This singular pillar and triple umbrella structure symbolize the ‘world’s mountains’ or ‘axis mundi’, also it symbolizes the three jewels of Buddhism; the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. Surrounding the singular pillar and its umbrella is a square set of railings called the harmika (Fisher 31). Over the years, the stupa structure underwent embellishment and extensions by adding carvings and additional motifs to complexify the overall design for worship (Fisher 31).
The common characteristic of an early Indian stupa can be seen in the Great Stupa of Sanchi that houses the Buddha’s ashes (Wassman 17) that was built originally in the 3rd century BCE by emperor Ashoka (5). As described, the 120 feet wide and 54 feet high structure has a stone hemispherical dome on top of a base, a central pillar (yashti) at the top that symbolizes the cosmic axis and triple umbrella structure (chattra), which is known to represent the Three Jewels of Buddhist. In addition to that, the yashti and chattra are enclosed by a square railing (harmika). Furthermore, a good example of a stupa that underwent further modification to the design is the White Stupa of Thuparama Dagoba in Sri Lanka that began construction in 250 to 210 BC. The white stupa was a direct gift from India’s King Ashoka to King Devanampiya Tissa of Sri Lanka and is said to enshrine the right collarbone bone of the Buddha (Wassman 32). The main difference of the Sri Lankan stupa to the Indian stupa is the system of decoration, one having an abundance of relief carvings and one with no elaborate design but a smooth and hemispherical body (Fisher 67). The white stupa’s anda was moved upwards compared to the stupas that were grounded onto the earth and the base was extended. Other than that, the pillar extended upward, adding more chattra disks onto the structure.
As Buddhism spread across East Asia and as religious and philosophical ideas exchange during the silk road trade (Wassman 156), the ancient Indian stupa structure evolved into the tower-like structure that takes the form of the best-known pagoda design in countries such as China and Japan. In China, pagodas were commonly built of wood in square shapes, but in the early thirteenth century, they began to be constructed of brick in octagonal and hexagonal shapes. Moreover, Chinese pagodas have up to fifteen stories, with an upward curving and overhanging roofs known as eaves on each level. Pagodas were constructed around a central staircase and can have many forms. Similar to an Indian Stupa, a Chinese pagoda can be divided into three main sections; a base, a body, and a top. It is discovererd that the pagodas initially designed as tombs for Buddhist relics were soon modified with traditional Chinese architecture, culture and Chinese characteristics after they were introduced from India. Chinese pagodas took on the elements of Chinese towers and pavilions and can be circular, square or polygonal in shape. Other than that, each storey in an East Asian pagoda has its own projecting roofline, and the whole structure is topped by a mast and disks, like the chhatra and yashti (2). During the Tang period, the Chinese pagoda had little resemblance to its predecessors due to its vertical, rectilinear and overhanging eaves that were attributed to Chinese tradition designs (Fisher 97). Unfortunately, during periods of war and conflict in history, most wooden pagodas were destroyed by fire. Many beautiful religious structures were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution, however, some have been rebuilt. Today, roughly 10,000 Chinese pagodas survive, mainly made of brick or stone (2).
A good example to show the development of stupas in China is the brick Tie Ta (Iron Pagoda) (Wassman 161) that was built in 1049 during the Song dynasty. The Iron Pagoda has 13 storeys and was made of glazed bricks that gave the appearance as if it was made of iron. During the Song Dynasty, Buddhism had a both Taoism and Confucianism integrated into the religion, causing the Taoist-Confucian shrine designs to merge with the style of the stupa, giving it tiled roofs that are supported by a thick pillar. The use of such components meant for the idea of sloping slides to be necessary, further preserving the dome-like nature of the Indian Stupa. The Iron Pagoda is adorned with cornices that create separate levels along the entire monument and the base of the pagoda becomes one with the dome, therefore emphasizing the verticality and creating the ‘tower stupa’, also known as the pagoda (Wassman 160).
Similarly, in Japan, the initial design of stupas underwent modification based on a different culture’s traditional designs. The Japanese pagoda can be divided into three separate sections; the base, main body and the spire top. However, instead of being built of brick or stone and having many storeys like in China, Japan preferred building and detailing their pagodas in wood and having about 5 storeys or less for their pagodas (Fisher 98). Japanese pagodas tend to feature more extreme rooflines than the Chinese and that became a norm for tower stupas throughout the entire country of Japan. Furthermore, Tahoto, another Japanese form of pagodas, adapted both Indian and Chinese forms of rectangular lower stories and a partially visible dome that is covered by a sloping square roof (Alex 24). This design retains the stepped stone base, the 9 ringed mast and rounded dome of the original stupa (Alex 114).
A good example that illustrates the common design of pagodas in Japan would be the Kofuku-ji pagoda in Nara, Japan, that was built in the 8th century by Chinese residence and rebuilt in 1426 (Wassman 169). The 50 meter, wooden Kofuku-ji pagoda is a 5-storeyed pagoda with exaggerated tilted eaves and prominent spire at the top of the structure. Moreover, the base and main body of the pagoda is merged together, leaving greater space for the pillar and 9 disks to emphasize the symbolism of the cosmic axis. This design became a common design for the pagodas throughout Japan (Wassman 168). Another example that illustrates the Tahoto style of pagodas is the pagoda at Kongo Sanmaiin temple in Japan (Alex 24) that was built during the Heian period (794 to 1185). The pagoda has a rectangular lower storey and a partially visible dome that sits in the middle of the structure. Other than that, there is a 9 disk spire at the top of the structure and the dome and rectangular storey is covered by a sloping square roof (Alex 24)
To summarize, the structure of the stupa swept across the rest of East Asia during the spread of Buddhism through the Silk Road. The design of the stupa, at that point a pagoda, was modified and determined by the culture of the country that the pagoda was built in. The structural and sharp Chinese and Japanese forms were slowly integrated into the rounded and hemispherical dome-shaped stupa, gradually hiding the original design and creating a new and iconic architectural creation in itself.