Prior to the War of 1812, the United States was seen as a weak gathering of loosely associated nation states who agreed to defend each other, but it was not seen as a powerful nation. Because Great Britain saw the United States as weak and fledgling Britain attempted to conquer the United States and return them to the state of subservience that had preceded the Revolutionary War. The outcome of The War of 1812 created a view of The United States as a country that deserved a place among the powerhouses of the world and encouraged a feeling of nationalism domestically that unified the disorganized states into a nation.
Before the War of 1812, the United States was seen as a weak nation that could not defend itself against attack and easy pickings for any nation that wanted to take from the United States. This incentive led to many attacks on under-defended American trading vessels in the Atlantic Ocean by European powers. The greatest threat to American ships was the French navy which attacked American ships in all areas of the Atlantic. The French lacked a respect for the sovereignty of the newly created country that seemed to be an easy target with no power to fight back. This view continued when American ambassadors, John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry, and Charles Cotesworth, were sent to negotiate a peaceful end to the conflict and were not allowed to meet with the French foreign minister to negotiate peace. The disrespect of the American officials continued when French agents approached them and demanded a bribe of $220,000 and a loan of $12 million to meet with the French foreign minister, a right which would have been given for free to a more established nation. This disrespect was continued even after the United States had proven its ability to defend its shipping, as during the negotiation of the treaty ending the conflict France refused to pay reparations for the damage caused during this war. This attitude of disrespect towards the United States continued through the Jefferson presidency through the act known as Napoleon’s deception, where Napoleon took over American frigates that were meant to trade with France under the pretense of ending the embargo and reinstating trade between the two countries. France’s actions show a reckless disregard for the United States, as France was at war with Britain at the time and needed all the allies it could get, and yet still engaged in an act of war, considering the value of six frigates to be more valuable than American support throughout the war. During the time period before the War of 1812, France treated the United States as a country to be robbed and forced into submission, instead of treating it as the powerful country that it desired to be.
France was not the only country that lacked respect for the newly created United States; Great Britain also treated the United States as a weak country whose resources were ripe for the taking. Britain’s policy toward the United States in its early years ranged from aggressive diplomacy to outright acts of war. One of Britain’s most powerful tools of regaining sovereignty over the United States was the practice of impressment, whereby the British navy forcibly recruited British citizens to join their navy. However, the British also saw the United States as still being part of the British empire and impressed 9,991 American citizens between 1796 and 1812 despite their American citizenship. This action shows the complete disregard of the independence of the United States, by still considering them subjects of the British crown despite their American citizenship.
Britain and France had good reason to doubt the United State’s ability to be a powerful nation. Prior to the War of 1812, the United States implemented a series of foreign policy acts that diminished its reputation and power on the world stage. Firstly the Embargo act of 1807 intended to harm Britain and France by refusing to trade with them, only damaged the US economy decreasing US exports from $108 million in 1807 to $22 million in 1808. The embargo act further harmed the economy of the US by costing 30,000 sailors their jobs leaving them unemployed. Following the failure of the Embargo Act, Jefferson passed the Non Intercourse act which banned trade with just France and Britain while allowing trade with the rest of the world, which also failed to damage Britain and France and eventually led to the allowance of trade with both countries. This scandal further diminished the view of the power of the United States both abroad and domestically where the embargo and nonintercourse acts were extremely unpopular.
In the midst of this struggle, a unifying force was needed to bring the United States together and gain respect for the new nation on the world stage. Some Americans found the answer to the problems facing their nation in war hawks, such as Henry Clay. Clay’s arguments that the United States’ “preparations are adequate to every essential object” speaking about the United States’ readiness for war. Letters and speeches like this from Henry Clay and other war hawks helped encourage a sense of national pride and readiness for war, despite the United States disadvantage compared to Britain pre-war of 1812. Clay reflected American desire that was especially strong in the South and West of the country to win a war against Britain and thus gain more power on the world stage. Clay and other war hawks sought to awaken “a martial spirit” harkening back to the time of the revolution and calling for “a new race of heroes to supply their place”. Clay’s fiery speeches and desire to conquer Canada and gain “some of the territories to the north” to be settled by Americans inspired many citizens to push for a war with Britain. Clay and the other war hawks succeeded in getting a declaration of war against Britain, but the early stages of the war did not go as they thought.
During the early parts of the war, the United States struggled to make any headway in their invasion of Canada, despite claims by Clay that “the Kentucky Militia alone could conquer it” referring to Canada. In the early stages of the war with Britain, three separate invasions into Canada all failed to gain headway and even gave ground against a British supported Native American force that was able to capture land in the Northern part of the United States. This added to the view internationally that the United States was an incompetent nation that had no real power compared to other world powers at the time. The reputation of the United States was further diminished after a United States army burned the Canadian capital of York and broke the unspoken rules of war by injuring both civilians and prisoners after burning the city. These acts prompted a British force of 4500 British soldiers to land in Maryland and march on the American capital of Washington DC. The British force defeated an army of 7000 on their way to burning Washington DC. Further adding to the view of Americans as lawless and out of control held by the British, Americans were observed looting their own capital after it was burned. This was the lowest point in the war for both American morale and nationalism. However, the burning of the American capital did not bring a quick end to the war as the British hoped. The fighting continued in the United States until the battle of New Orleans.
American nationalism received a huge boost from the battle of New Orleans. Seen as a decisive victory that ended the war with Britain, the battle of New Orleans also gave the United States a new national hero in the form of Andrew Jackson. Jackson’s decisive victory where he lost only 6 men on his main line while the British had over 1500 casualties proved to Americans that they were a powerful nation that was to be respected. This victory along with news of the Treaty of Ghent being signed to end the war greatly boosted nationalism throughout the nation and made Americans believe they had won the war, despite not gaining any concessions from Britain and instead being forced to give up fishing rights in Canadian waters and giving up territory in the west for Native American settlement. This battle was the last in the War of 1812 and led into a new era of American democracy and nationalism.
Following the War of 1812, the United States became a unified country politically with the beginning of the Era of Good Feelings. During this time period, there was only one political party which was able to gain support throughout the country. This time period was the most politically united time since the presidency of Washington and helped solidify American identity as the “land of the free and the home of the brave” an idea supported by the new national anthem. Adding to the feelings of American superiority was the economic prosperity following the War of 1812 which allowed American farmers to prosper. The era of Good Feelings also changed the relationship between the United States and European countries.
Following the War of 1812, Great Britain was forced to acknowledge American sovereignty in the Treaty of Ghent and established diplomatic relations with the country. Great Britain even supported the Monroe Doctrine which declared American nations should “not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers” a declaration that harmed British ambitions in the New World. Following the Monroe Doctrine Britain continued to engage in diplomacy with the United States to solidify a peaceful boundary between the United States and Canada treating the United States as they would a European country. This new respect for the United States also killed impressment despite nothing in the Treaty of Ghent ensuring the end of the practice. Britain even compromised with the United States on their claim to the Oregon territory and signed the Oregon Treaty of 1846, agreeing to cede territory which they had laid claim to in order to avoid another war with the United States. British respect for the power of the United States even forced them to remain neutral in the civil war when it was in their best interest to support the Confederacy to ensure cotton imports from the South continued. British respect for the United States continued throughout the centuries following the war of 1812 and continues to this day.
Following the Era of Good feelings, national pride continued throughout the United States. This pride was exemplified by Andrew Jackson, the hero of the battle of New Orleans who used his popularity to ascend to the presidency in 1829. Andrew Jackson was able to win the presidency in part due to new voting laws which allowed 1,143,450people to vote up from the 352,780 who voted in the previous election. A large part of the new electorate was non property holding white males which allowed for a national hero like Jackson to win easier because he had more support among the common people than from the elites who made up the majority of the electorate prior to this election. The nationalistic pride and support for Andrew Jackson changed the presidency from an office for the elites to the office of the common white man. The change in the electorate and Jackson’s popularity allowed him to enact policies such as the Indian Removal Act of 1830 which was struck down by the supreme court, but enacted by Jackson anyway. Jackson became an emblem for American nationalism with his promises to help the common man. Jackson also promised to devote himself to the “correction of those abuses that have brought the patronage of the Federal Government into conflict with the freedom of elections” showing his devotion to the people over the constitution and example set by previous presidents. Jackson used his widespread support to continue to support a nationalistic view of the United States throughout his presidency.
Jackson’s nationalist view of the United States was tested in the nullification crisis of 1832. During this time period, some politicians argued that states had the right to nullify any bill passed by the federal government. These beliefs stemmed from the time of Adams’s presidency when Thomas Jefferson and James Madison argued that states could nullify the alien and sedition acts of Adams’s presidency as unconstitutional. This act inspired John C. Calhoun, vice president to Andrew Jackson, to attempt to declare the tariff of 1828 unconstitutional, and encourage other states to join in his fight against the tariff. Calhoun published an anonymous criticism of the tariff where he argued the tariff was unconstitutional and a “violation of perversion” of the abilities of the national government to tax its constituents. Andrew Jackson did not support the tariff of 1828 because it cost farmers in the South millions of dollars over its lifespan, but he realized the cost to the union that a nullification would have. Jackson encouraged the passing of the Force Bill which legalized the ability of the president to “to employ such part of the land or naval forces or the militia of the United States” ensure the collection of the tariff. While Jackson made his nationalistic stand with the Force Bill, he also signed the Compromise Tariff of 1833 to appease the Southern farmers that had helped him win the presidency. The Compromise Tariff declared that the tariff of 1828 would be slowly removed until June of 1842 when the tariff would be fully removed. This compromise along with the threat of violence caused South Carolina to back down from their quest to nullify the tariff of 1828 and preserved the power of the national government over the states.
The nationalist movement continued throughout the nineteenth century and reached another peak during the Mexican American War. Throughout the time period before the Mexican American War ideas of American expansion to the Pacific coast were extremely prevalent. The idea of American expansion had widespread support from people throughout the country and prompted then-president James K. Polk to buy California and New Mexico from Mexico for $25 million and $5 million respectively. Mexico refused this deal and in response, the United States declared war on Mexico. The United States was able to gain the support of 50,000 voluntary soldiers who chose to fight Mexico for the nationalistic ideals that the United States had a right to the territory that Mexico had laid claim to. The standing army of the United States also increased from 7,200 to 15,540 showing additional support for the war. The perceived victory in the War of 1812 in the Battle of New Orleans along with the successes of American rebels in Texas who had successfully rebelled against Mexico, created a feeling of national superiority above Mexico which would not have been possible without the successes of the War of 1812. As the most recent conflict after the War of 1812, the Mexican American war was heavily influenced by the results of the War of 1812. Seeing the United States as a world powerhouse that had equaled the British, the American strategy of blockading Mexican ports and eventually attacking the capital mirrored the British strategy in the War of 1812. In contrast to the War of 1812 when the Americans viewed themselves as a secondary power that must resort to guerrilla tactics to defeat their enemies, in the Mexican American war the U.S. employed the strategy of the British in the War of 1812 by sending a large force into Mexico to take the Mexican capital and force a surrender. The American strategy was successful and over 500,000 acres of Mexican territory was taken in exchange for $15 million paid from the United States to Mexico as well as the assumption of $3 million in debts owed by the Mexican government to American citizens by the American government with the signing of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. This war marked the culmination of the nationalistic spirit created by the War of 1812 that had slowly worked at solidifying the United States into a world power.
Following the War of 1812, the United States became a respected world power, whereas before they had been a punching bag for the powerful European countries that desired American natural resources. The War of 1812 was crucial for the United States for three reasons: it created a feeling of nationalistic fervor where none had existed before, strengthened the reputation of the United States internationally, and changed the political landscape of the United States to be more about the common man. Following the war, the United States also saw itself as a world power and used its power to establish itself as the strongest nation in the Americas. Without the War of 1812 changed the perception of The United States both domestically and abroad as the world powerhouse it is known as today. While the War of 1812 is not considered as one of the most important wars in American history, it was crucial for America’s development as a nation and deserves a reputation as the most important war in the development of nationalism in the United States.