In the mid-sixteenth century, a special type of comedic performance art nowadays referred to as commedia dell’arte emerged. It became popular in Italy and France, and consisted of improvised dialogue, stock characters, and masks. Those traits, however, were not formed in a vacuum. They drew inspiration from a plethora sources. Commedia dell’arte itself was built on the foundation of established society and surrounding stereotypes, the relatable nature of the characters was essential to the success of commedia dell’arte, as audience members could relate to them. Without the use of archetypes, commedia would have been unable to gain traction and make a mark on theater performance.
Before delving into the origins of commedia, it is important to outline the specifics of commedia dell’arte as well as the difficulties surrounding research. The term commedia dell’arte translates approximately to ‘comedy of the artists’, as it was played by professional actors who formed troupes as opposed to the amateur performers typical of the day. Other names, however have also been used in order to reveal different parts of the form such as commedia improvviso (improvised comedy) and commedia alla maschera (masked comedy). The players all wore masks, and each stock character had clearly defined movements and gestures as well as a specific role in the power structure that they fit into. Commedia dell’arte is improvised, however a distinction to be made is that the improvisation is built upon a pre-decided scenario, or canovaccio. The play always ends happily, and no one ever dies in commedia. Different characters had specific lazzi (gags) that they could pull from during a performance. They often also had pre-written monologues. The shows were typically performed outside on a temporary stage with minimal props. Despite the richness and importance of commedia dell’arte, many questions still remain about its beginnings. The survival of history relied on those who could read and write, and during the Italian Renaissance, that consisted of those in power; and commedia dell’arte was not necessarily made for those in power. The fact that this form of performance is improvised is also a hindrance, as scripts from the early days of commedia did not exist. There are a few recounts of performances, but unfortunately they rely on the words of a dilettanti (fan of art), as opposed to a scholar. Many of the information that survives today was written in hindsight when commedia gained popularity. All of this information is important to hold in delving deeper into the origins and influences of the art form.
In the creation of the stock characters, the actors of the original troupes drew upon other archetypes from different performance, as well as archetypes that existed within their own society. This was useful in how the players connected to the audience, as the audience themselves were able to recognize characters and understand them in an instant. At the time, Italy itself was split into states, and the stock characters used in commedia represented the basic types from those states. As John Rudlin in his book ‘Commedia Dell’arte: An Actor’s Handbook’,
“There were in effect, three divisions: the north, providing the ‘four Masks’ – Arlecchino and Brighella (Bergamo), Pantalone (Veneice), Il Dottore (Bologna); the south – Pulcinella, Tartaglia, Coviello and Il Capitano (Naples or Calabria); and Tuscany, which provided the literary tongue befitting the manners of the Lovers and the female servant” (Rudlin,7)
The different states played into the level of power that characters had. The zanni (servant), comes from Bergamo in the mountains. In the 15th century, the Republic of Venice conquered Bergamo, leading to famine in the area. For several Bergamo inhabitants, relocation to larger cities to work as a kind of servant was the only choice. Thus, the story of zanni was instantly understood and relatable to the audience. Zanni were present in many different characters, such as Arlecchino, Brighella,and Pasquariella. Pantalone, the miser, on the other hand hails from Venice. At the time, Venice was the most powerful and wealthy city. It was highly commercial, and by retained control over trade. Therefore it is logical that it produced the most powerful and wealthy characters. The power dynamics are essential to commedia plays, and when audiences can use their own knowledge to establish the relationships and positions in society, they are able to quickly become engaged in the story.
Audiences far and wide found themselves able to identify and understand characters on sight. They saw themselves in the characters, they say their community heightened in the characters. The recognizable characters allowed for quick exposition, and further in depth comedic story.
The way that characters looked also provided spectators insight as to the nature of the characters they were watching. When Il Dottore come on stage, there would have been no doubt in the minds of spectators as to who he was. Dottore, another vecci (old man) hailed from Bologna. He is a fat know-it-all know-nothing. Dottore’s costume was like that the doctors at Bologna University, black, except for white collar and cuffs. Dottore was grandissimo , as indicated by his mask and his physical posture. His largeness was just one more indicator to his archetype.Bologna, known not only for the university, was also renowned for its delicious cuisine. Il Capitano, the cowardly soldier, was also recognizable on sight, as he wore Spanish military garb. Audiences were able to easily understand and laugh at this frightened foreigner without much explanation. All these indicators helped the audiences understand the character fully in a matter of seconds.
The characters spoke in a variety of dialects. Whether it be a mixture of language or just standard Italian. Dottore spoke a Bolognese dialect blended with Italian and Latin (this was known as minestrone). The lovers, on the other hand, spoke with Tuscan grace. They were refined, and spoke musically. Brighella had their own dialect, which was a mixture of Tuscan and Bergamese. Indicating that they are a mixture of refined and uncivilized. Whether the words were understood or not was of minor consequence, as commedia dell’arte is an art of action, rather than words. The lazzi and specific character movements tell the story. A composer by the name of Massimo Trojano wrote about a performance that took place in Bavaria in 1568,
“Even though the most part of them could not understand what he was saying, [Magnifico and Zanni] played so well and so agreeably that all [the courts] jaws ached from laughing.”
It is said that as the commedia troupes travelled, local characters would be more predominant in the performance. This allowed for audience members to relate even more to the stories they went to see.
The fact that spectators on the street were able to understand and relate to the characters.was essential to the survival of commedia dell’arte. Without the use of the stereotypes and people available to them, audiences would have been increasingly disconnected from the story, and commedia would not have thrived as it did. The masked characters came as a result of what the actors within the commedia troupes saw. They saw an archetype, and a need for representation onstage. They then created and performed it. Characters that were created were used throughout Italy and France, and some stock characters were seen as celebrities of a sort.