ging awareness of crime
AC1.1 Analyse different types of crimes
Crime is hard to define. Nils Christie (2004) said that crime does not exist but only acts exist. In various societies acts have different meanings. Criminal laws don’t explain why an act is a crime but rather it is there to influence attitudes, values and the perception of the public of particular acts. It is also a social construct as it is a process of negotiation between people in complex societies.
Crime has an ontological reality which is the philosophical study of the nature of what really exists. Hillyard and Tombs (2004) looked at zemiology which is the study of harm. They said harm which is caused by crime is not treated as ‘criminal’ by the courts and that the problem is the victim status.
Another problem of defining crime is that laws change over time and space and they vary geographically. There is no universal definition of what constitutes crime if the law is what defines a criminal act. At one time, what is now seen as criminal, may have been seen as acceptable before. This can also be reversed as what was once seen as criminal before may not be accepted. A couple of examples are:
• The Abortion Act 1967 which legalised abortion in mainland Britain but before the act was put in place it was illegal to have an abortion
• The Sexual Offences Act 1967 which legalised consensual sex between men but was illegal before the act
• Same-sex Marriage Act 2013 which allowed those with the same gender to be able to get married but was before illegal
Deviant behaviour is not necessarily a crime. Deviance is rule breaking which depends on socially accepted norms of behaviour. Becker (1963) said that deviance is in the eye of the beholder.
There are many different types of crimes. I shall be naming a few of those crimes, the types of offences, the types of victims, types of offenders, the level of public awareness and whether it is criminal or simply deviant.
White – collar crime
Criminal offences:
These types of crimes are usually non-violent and are committed for financial gain. For example, computer and internet fraud and credit card fraud. Organised white-collar crime involves illegal gambling and prostitution but can concentrate on protection rackets.
Types of victim:
Those who have funds are usually targeted as they can invest in financial schemes. For example, retired workers. They are usually hired by friends or people that you know.
This is especially common in Ponzi schemes. Ponzi schemes are fraudulent investment cons which promise little risk to investors but high rates of return. Yet, as the offender keeps initial investment for their own use, returns are funded by money from new investors.
Types of offender:
Those with high social status and those with respectability are usually the offenders as they are trusted by the victims. For example, business people. They work in commercial employment hence why the crime makes a reference to the white collared shirt and tie. They can also include organised groups. For example, the mafia (Italy, USA), Yakuza (Japan), Triads (China) and other gangs from the UK and Eastern Europe.
Level of public awareness:
These types of crime are difficult to prosecute as offenders use high-level means to cover their activities through difficult transactions. Suspicion is not usually stirred as the offender appears to be a respectable person. Public awareness is very low as violence related crimes are usually more extensively broadcasted.
Criminal or deviant:
This is both criminal and deviant. It is deviant because it goes against the norms of society and it is criminal because it is against the law.
Example case study:
An American businessman called Bernie Madoff defrauded investors of over $50 billion using the Ponzi scheme. Investors however believed that their money was being paid into numerous funds to make money. Yet, payments came from new investors and not from the investments as they were never made. He is now serving 150 years in prison.
Moral crimes
Criminal offences:
These crimes are against the typical standard of ethics within society. For example, prostitution, vagrancy, assisted suicide, illegal gambling, assisted suicide, illegal drug use and under-age drinking.
Types of victim:
These types of crimes are thought to be victimless. The offender and the victim can be the same person. For example, under-age drinking and vagrancy can involve the offender and victim being the same person.
Types of offender:
From crime to crime this can differ or be the same person. Offender is commonly in a difficult situation, such as homeless or vagrant or they have been forced into, for example, prostitution.
Level of public awareness:
This is often low as many offences are hidden from offenders’ families. Due to sympathy for the victims, it is often ignored rather than informing them to the police. For example, victims who are vagrant sleep rough and therefore often bring sympathy.
Criminal or deviant:
This type of crime is both deviant and criminal as society disagrees with the activities, but it is also against the law at the same time.
State crimes
Criminal offences:
These activities are committed by state agencies like the governments in order to further their policies, commit crimes. For example, torture, war crimes, genocide and imprisonment without trial. these types of crimes are in breach of articles from the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) such as the article 3 freedom from torture and inhuman treatment or article 2 a right to life.
Types of victim:
Citizens of the country or those of a different religion or political view from the government are usually the victims of state crimes.
Types of offender:
High-ranking government officials under orders of the country’s regime are the offenders. Some examples of genocide are: Nazi Germany during the holocaust, Bosnia in the early 1990’s and the Idi Amin’s Uganda in the 1970’s.
Level of public awareness:
The level of public awareness is usually high due to the speed of media and reporting in society, as the crimes are so extreme. For example, the orders given by Saddam Hussein that were carried out in Iraq is known by everyone.
Criminal or deviant:
This type of crime is both criminal and deviant as it goes against the accepted law and the moral range of society.
Technological crimes
Criminal offences:
This type of crime is also known as cybercrime. This type of crime is where the internet or other technologies are used to commit offences. For example, downloading illegal materials such as images and/or songs, the use of social media to encourage hate crimes and internet-enabled fraud.
Types of victim:
Anyone who uses the internet could be a victim as it can affect numerous amounts of different people as there is a wide range of crime under technological crimes. Victims could be individuals or large organisations. Exposed people are usually victims of phishing scams.
Types of offender:
Offenders can be anyone with access to and an essential knowledge of the internet. Most offenders are overseas with the ability to gain access to credit cards and bank accounts. The national crime agency did some work and saw that there is an increase in young people committing these crimes. This is due to young people trying to impress their friends.
Level of public awareness:
The level of public awareness is low as there are new technological elements. There has been an increased publicity and an increase in offences through promotion. Unless victims check their bank accounts they do not know of the crime.
Criminal or deviant:
Crimes such as downloading songs is so common that it is not seen as a ‘real crime’ by many people, however, internet fraud is seen as both criminal and deviant as it breaks the law and goes against the values and norms of society.
Individual crimes- hate crime
Criminal offences:
Any crime that is seen by victims or any other person as motivated by prejudice or based on hate towards the persons race, sexual orientation, if they are transgender, religious belief or disability is seen as a hate crime. Having hate elements can intensify any regular crimes. For example, the court would be told of any hate motivations behind a crime committed such as assault. The punishment is likely to be worse if there is a hate element behind the crime.
Types of victim:
Anyone who is of a different race, religion, sexual orientation, disability, transgender or are associated by someone who falls under one of those categories can become a victim. For example, a man named Adam Pearson has neurofibromatosis which causes benign tumours to grow on the nerve endings of his face has experienced disability hate crime. In an attempt to educate people and seek acceptance in society he has raised awareness of this crime.
Types of offender:
Anyone who holds a prejudicial view against one of those five strands that have been stated already can become an offender, as they hold traditional views differing from those of the victim. For example, the Charleston church shooting in South Carolina, USA in 2015 where during a prayer service, a white supremacist named Dylann Roof killed 9 people. He targeted one of the oldest black churches in the USA.
Level of public awareness:
Due to a high media focus the level of awareness has risen. Religiously provoked offences had a bigger sentencing element as the Anti-Terrorism Crime and Security Act 2001 added to previous legislation. For example, assault is risen from 6 months to 2 years in prison if it is aggravated by a religious element. A crackdown on social media hate crimes was ordered by the Crown Prosecution Service in August 2017 which added to the rising level of awareness of these crimes to the public.
Criminal or deviant:
This is seen as both criminal and deviant as it is against the law and it goes against social norms which victimizes someone concerning their identity.
Individual crimes – honour crime
Criminal offences:
This type of crime is a punishment for those who are seen as bringing shame on their families. For example, abductions, beatings, mutilations, acid attacks and murder.
Types of victim:
A typical victim would be a daughter (young girl) from an Asian community.
Types of offender:
Offenders are usually the male member of the family such as the father, brother or uncle of the victim. They are usually from the Asian community.
Level of public awareness:
This has a low level of awareness due to cultural differences. Within communities where this type of crime occurs it is seen as an applicable resolution to the ‘dishonourable’ behaviour. The wider community is unaware of the crime as it is usually unreported to the authorities.
Criminal or deviant:
It is seen as both criminal and deviant as it is against the law and is seen as going against society’s norms in respecting an individual’s lifestyle and is glared upon to injure someone due to their life choices.
Example case study:
Shafilea Ahmed was killed by her parents for refusing to follow their strict Pakistani lifestyle. She was suffocated by a plastic bag.
Individual crimes – domestic abuse
Criminal offences:
This type of crime is any act that is targeted against a partner or family member where abuse happens within the home in secret. For example, murder, torture, verbal abuse and assault. Domestic abuse can be physical, but it can cover emotional abuse such as controlling behaviour or name calling to the victim.
Types of victim:
Victims are generally women such as wives or girlfriends or any female in an intimate relationship. Nevertheless, men can be victims too just not as common as women. Age and circumstances are not restricted in victims.
For example, Clare Wood was a mother from Manchester who was a victim of domestic abuse by George Appleton after whom she met on an internet dating website. She entered into a relationship with him unconscious of his prior abusive history with women. She was ultimately raped, strangled and then set ablaze in her own home.
Types of offender:
Ordinarily the offenders are men such as a husband or a boyfriend. They keep their crime hidden in the home and make sure the public are not knowledgeable of what is happening. They take precautions to guarantee that their crimes are not reported, and their victims don’t speak out.
Level of public awareness:
Notwithstanding exposure from notorious cases the level of awareness is low as many people of the public do not report the crime and choose to turn a blind eye, also victims are usually in fear of the consequences of reporting. The police are trained to take this crime very seriously.
Criminal or deviant:
Domestic abuse is criminal as it is against the law but also deviant as it is against the norms of society.
Sexual harassment
Criminal offences:
Any kind of unwelcome behaviour that is of a sexual nature which makes you feel shamed or frightened or creates an unfriendly environment is sexual harassment. Sexual harassment can also include being called insulting sexual names, someone talking about in a sexual way or someone spreading sexual rumours about you. This type of crime can happen in person, online or even over the phone. This crime can leave you feeling depressed and can lead to other problems. For example, difficulty sleeping. There are different types of sexual harassment. Verbal harassment is when someone making sexual comments to you. For example, name calling or remarking on your appearance or body. Sexual advances are someone eyeing and making unsuitable sexual propositions over the phone, email or in person.
Types of victims:
Anyone can be sexually harassed no matter whether you’re gay, straight, bi or trans. Many people do not take sexual harassment seriously if it is done towards someone of the same sex, but that is not the case. However, it is usually women who are sexually harassed.
Types of offenders:
Anyone can be an offender whether you’re a male or female but typically it is men who are the offenders.
Level of public awareness:
There is not a lot of public awareness however the awareness is rising as women and men are now more empowered to speak up and raise the crime, as people usually turn a blind eye to it or just ignore it. For example, if you’re being sexually harassed in a work environment you might just ignore it as you don’t want to lose your job.
Criminal or deviant:
This is criminal because it is against the law. It is also deviant as it is against the norms of society as no one likes to be harassed.
Antisocial behaviour
Criminal offences:
This is when your life is affected by the people in your community. For example, noise nuisance, threatening behaviour, vandalism, verbal abuse, harassment and intimidation, criminal damage and neighbour disputes. Antisocial behaviour can go on for a long time and become serious so you should not ever think of an incident as too small. Most antisocial behaviour is classed as a crime but not all is. Antisocial behaviour can leave you feeling frightened to go out, make your children upset, make you want to move out, you can’t sleep, you can’t talk to anyone about it and it’ll make you feel like you’ve done something to cause it and you’ll think nothing can be done to change it.
Types of victims:
Anyone who lives within a community and lives in a house/flat/apartment can become a victim.
Types of offenders:
Anyone can be offenders however it is usually young teenagers who commit antisocial behaviour. Those who commit this type of crime are usually called chavs and are stereotyped.
Level of public awareness:
There is not a lot of awareness to this type of crime as most crimes of this nature are not reported due to people ignoring or seeing it as normal. Many people aren’t aware they can report this type of crime and so much awareness isn’t raised on this issue.
Criminal or deviant:
Most antisocial behaviour is a crime as it is against the law however not all antisocial behaviour is criminal, but it is rather seen as deviant as it goes against society’s norms.
Terrorism
Criminal offences:
Types of victims:
Types of offenders:
Level of public awareness:
Criminal or deviant:
Arson
Criminal offences:
Types of victims:
Types of offenders:
Level of public awareness:
Criminal or deviant:
Robbery
Criminal offences:
This is when someone takes something from you with violence or threats. It is usually done in a public place or on the street. It is a common crime and is sometimes related to other crimes such as hate crime or antisocial behaviour. It may be common but has a very damaging impact. It is a violent crime even if you weren’t injured as it is very distressing to be threatened with violence and being confronted by a thief with a weapon.
Types of victims:
Women are usually victims or older people as they are seen as weaker and easier to give in and tackle during robberies. However, men can be victims too if they have chains or other means of bling on. You could also be robbed if you look rich. For example, in a smart suit carrying a designer brand.
Types of offenders:
Men are typically the offenders however there are women offenders. There are teenagers who are now starting to rob too as they want to impress their friends.
Level of public awareness:
This crime has awareness as people are told to be aware and be careful on the streets and in public as anyone could be a victim.
Criminal or deviant:
It is criminal because it is against the law to steal especially using violence or threating to use violence. It is also deviant as it isn’t seen as a norm of society to steal other people’s things.
Stalking and harassment
Criminal offences:
Many people think stalking is only done to celebrities but that is not the case. Stalking is uninvited attention which makes you feel disturbed and agitated.
Types of victims:
Types of offenders:
Level of public awareness:
Criminal or deviant:
Childhood abuse
Criminal offences:
Types of victims:
Types of offenders:
Level of public awareness:
Criminal or deviant:
Burglary
Criminal offences:
Types of victims:
Types of offenders:
Level of public awareness:
Criminal or deviant:
Crime abroad
Criminal offences:
Types of victims:
Types of offenders:
Level of public awareness:
Criminal or deviant:
Revenge porn
Criminal offences:
Types of victims:
Types of offenders:
Level of public awareness:
Criminal or deviant:
Murder or manslaughter
Criminal offences:
Types of victims:
Types of offenders:
Level of public awareness:
Criminal or deviant:
Rape and sexual assault
Criminal offences:
Rape: If you are forced to have sex without your consent or agreement that is rape. Rape includes penetration with a male’s penis of the vagina, anus or mouth without consent. No matter what the circumstance nobody has the right to force you to have sex without your consent. If you are sexually assaulted by someone by them penetrating you with another part of their body or an object, then that is classed as ‘assault by penetration’. This is still treated similarly to rape if it is taken to court.
Sexual assault: if someone touches you in a sexual way that you don’t like intentionally or forces you to kiss someone or do something sexual against your will, that is sexual assault. Whether you are wearing clothes or not, it does not make a difference as you are still touched sexually somewhere on your body.
Types of victims:
Usually it is women who are raped and sexually assaulted but there are men who have been raped and sexually assaulted too. Both women and men can commit sexual assault so therefore anyone can be sexually assaulted.
Types of offenders:
Most offenders are men as only men can commit rape although both men and women can sexually assault someone.
Level of public awareness:
There wasn’t much awareness as people felt ashamed to talk about what had happened to them but now there has been a rise in public awareness as people are now being empowered to speak up and not feel ashamed of what has happened to them. They are getting more support therefore more and more people feel more comfortable speaking up.
Criminal or deviant:
This is both criminal and deviant as it is against the law, so it is criminal. It is also deviant as it is not accepted by society to commit this type of crime.