Discriminatory political legislature towards Native Americans has ranged from genocide and relocation (Indian Removal Act, 1830, the “Trail of Tears”) to acculturation and Americanization (Civilization Fund Act, 1819; Dawes Act, 1887; Curtis Act, 1898; Indian Citizenship Act, 1924) . The socio-political discrimination has led to societal and cultural discrimination. The most prevalent stereotypes Native Americans are associated with in cinema are death, savagery, stoicism, beautiful maidens and kinship.
Hollywood has been the dominant force in global cinema since the conclusion of the First World War , its movies set precedents that are “particularly persuasive”, precedents that have a “profound influence upon the mental and moral outlooks of millions” . These stereotypes often relate to ethnic minorities and are often degrading in nature. Even Peter Pan (1953) and Pocahontas (1995), animated Walt Disney productions created for children, portrayed Native Americans as savage and inferior peoples.
Indians dying, and disappearing is a common theme within Hollywood films. Virtually all Hollywood Westerns are set pre-twentieth century and the Indians within these films tend to die or disappear, never to be seen again. This stereotype is implied in Stagecoach, the quintessential Hollywood western, as most of the Indians featured are killed and the rest are made to disappear. It is also implied at the end Dances with Wolves, which is set in the 1860s, that the Indians do not survive to see the twentieth and twenty-first century. The final text of the movie reads;
Thirteen years later, their homes destroyed, their buffalo gone, the last band of free Sioux submitted to white authority at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. The great horse culture of the plains was gone and the American frontier was soon to pass into history .
In all of the Native films that we watched – Powwow Highway being the one exception – a character is either killed or dies. However, the dead continue to play an important role in these films. In Skins, Rudy makes a tribute to his dead brother by throwing the can of red oil-based paint so that it drips down the side of George Washington's nose at Mount Rushmore. In House Made of Dawn, despite the fact that Francisco (Mesa Bird) dies early in the film, he is the one that inspires Abel (Larry Littlebird) to finish the traditional dawn run at the end of the film . Both films answer back to Hollywood films such Dances with Wolves and Stagecoach, which imply that Indians play no role whatsoever following their death. “He’s telling everyone that we’re still here” (Fancydancing).
A common misconception of Native Americans is that they were “tomahawk-wielding savages thirsty for the white man’s blood” . Native Americans are portrayed as such in numerous films, including Broken Arrow (1950), where they kill a group of unsuspecting white males on horseback , and Stagecoach (1939), where the savagery of the Apache warriors is exemplified by their targeting of the unarmed civilians within the stagecoach .
There is a scene within The Business of Fancydancing (2002) which also re-inscribes this connotation. Aristotle (Gene Tagaban) and Mouse (Swil Kanim) come across a single, stranded and innocent white driver who they brutally assault. While Mouse is hesitant at first, he is pushed by Aristotle, who shows no remorse whatsoever, to continue the attack .
House Made of Dawn!
However, as the character Thomas-Builds-the Fire notes in the film Smoke Signals (1998), the Coeur d’Alene tribe – from which he and Victor originate – had no history of hunting Buffalo, they “were fishermen” . “Smoke Signals explores the nature of Native American stereotypes in popular cinema by both seriously challenging them and humorously poking fun at them” . Smoke Signals highlights the “harsh social realities of reservation life” , by doing so, it is “delineating contemporary Native American culture” .
Smoke Signals is also useful in helping us to address another prevalent stereotype, that of the stoic Indian warrior. “Victor Joseph’s sense of self is shaped by this particular myth” and while he re-inscribes this cliché with his “serious, determined and warrior-like” demeanour, Thomas-Builds-the Fire (Evan Adams) challenges it throughout the majority of the film.
During one particular scene, Victor (Adam Beach) even tells Thomas to “quit grinning like an idiot, Indians ain’t supposed to smile like that, get stoic” . Thomas temporarily adheres this advice, but soon returns to his jolly and weird self. While there is a clear development in Victor’s character throughout the film, there is little development in Thomas’ character. Thomas is not the only Native American character to challenges this cliché, Philbert Bono (Gary Farmer) in Powwow Highway (1989) also does.
Gary Farmer's portrayal of Philbert is regarded as a landmark performance in challenging Hollywood's stereotypes . In a journal article titled Easin’ on Down the Powwow Highway, Rodney Simard is quick to note Philbert’s great physical strength, but he also highlights gentle and comedic qualities . Nowhere are these characteristics more evident than in the memorable scene atop of the Black Hills in South Dakota. As Peter Rollins notes in his book, Hollywood's Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film;
Philbert climbs the mountain, begins to unwrap a large Hershey chocolate bar, and then changes his mind; all around him he sees colourful gifts left on the mountaintop by other Indians, and he gently places his chocolate bar among them, looks out over the spectacular countryside, and then, in a magnificent comic release, tumbles end over end down the mountain, shouting ecstatically .
“European Americans developed a powerful a powerful stereotype of the “drunken Indian” – a pitiful creature unable to resist the bottle and incapable of controlling the emotional effects of drinking” .
In Smoke Signals, there was a house fire on the reservation after an Independence Day party. Arnold (Surname!) (Gary Farmer) accidentally started the fire but his guilt over the deaths for which he was directly responsible-led to an alcohol dependency and an abusive relationship with his son, Victor. When Arlene (Actor) discovers the effect her husband's drinking is having on Victor, she gives Arnold an ultimatum. He leaves, never to return. (http://www.filmjournal.com/smoke-signals)
On the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota, where Skins is set, alcohol is prohibited. Rudy Yellow Lodge’s brother Mogie (Graham Greene) would regularly travel a couple of miles to the alcohol-selling border town of Whiteclay, Nebraska and binge drink with his friend Verdell Weasel Tail (Gary Farmer) and other indigenous peoples. After years of binge drinking, Mogie is eventually diagnosed with a terminal liver condition, one which Dr Fitzgerald (Tina Keeper) attributes to his excessive drinking. It is also revealed that Rudy (Eric Shweig) and Mogie, along with their mother, were abused by their alcoholic father. This shows a lineage of alcohol abuse within the family and only further re-inscribes the stereotype .
Rudy works as a police officer, and during one particular scene, he is made aware of a “drunken brawl” at the Elton Blue Cloud (Zach McClarnon) residence. Rudy jokes with his controller, Geraldine, that this is a new problem, but the humour and the delivery used shows that this problem is common and widespread. When Rudy arrives at the house, he finds Elton, who had been drinking all night, physically assaulting his wife (Misty Upham) . This further re-inscribes the prominent stereotype that alcoholism was a problem for many Native Americans.
In his poem How to Write the Great Native American Novel, Sherman Alexie proclaims that “Indians always have secrets, which are carefully and slowly revealed” . Seymour Polatkin (Evan Adams) “pillaged — without acknowledgement — Aristotle Joseph’s colourful life story and wild-man persona to fuel his poetic packaging of Native life” in The Business of Fancydancing (2002). Seymour’s sexuality is also a secret, until he reveals to his girlfriend, Agnes Roth (Michelle St Adams), that he is a homosexual.
In Skins, Rudy leads a double life as a vigilante who attempts to write the wrongs of the reservation. Disguising himself with black paint, he pummels a couple of young men tied to an earlier murder with a baseball bat. The two young men later confessed to the murder while receiving treatment in hospital. Angered by a news report about a liquor store in the bordering town profiting off of alcoholic Native Americans, Rudy sets out – again with a painted face and under the cover of darkness – and sets the store on fire. Unknown to Rudy, Mogie was on the roof of the building trying to steal some alcohol. Mogie escapes and survives but is burned and severely scarred. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skins_(2002_film) (Film)
When Arnold is first questioned about the fire in Smoke Signals, he claims to have no knowledge as to how it started. It is Suzy Song (Irene Bedard), who later befriended Arnold in Phoenix, who tells Victor the real story of that night. No one on the Coeur d’Alene reservation knew that Arnold had accidentally started the fire, but it helps Victor to understand Thomas’ close relationship with his father . Like the drinking stereotype, the secrecy stereotype is re-affirmed by the Native films, as is the stereotype of kinship.
Native Americans are renowned for their kinship, “indeed, many Indian people identify themselves first as tribal members and then as Indians”. Kinship is clear to see in Powwow Highway, Buddy Red Bow (A Martinez) needs to make the long trip from Lame Deer, Montana to Santa Fe, New Mexico, to help his imprisoned sister, Bonnie (Joanelle Romero). Buddy does not own a car, so he needs a favour from his old friend Philbert. After letting Philbert know that he needs to travel south, Buddy asks; “can I count on you, or what?”, to which Philbert emphatically replies; “we are Cheyenne” and the two begin their road trip. Philbert knows that the trip will be difficult, but he feels obliged to help his fellow tribe member during a time of need .
Kinship is prominent as an ideal in The Business of Fancydancing and is often the cause of arguments and misunderstandings. Considering previous hardship that Native Americans have endured, it is no surprise that their sense of community and togetherness has been hardened. When Seymour makes the decision to return to the Spokane reservation in Wellpinit, Washington for Mouse’s funeral, his white boyfriend Steven (Kevin Phillip) tries to discourage him from returning to the reservation for the funeral by pleading, “they're not your tribe anymore, I'm your tribe” . Even though Seymour has not returned to the reservation since graduating from Wellpinit High School, the fact that he feels obligated to return for Mouse’s funeral shows that his kinship with his tribe has yet to die, further re-inscribing the stereotype.
Also, “the paradoxical world of Seymour, a successful writer comfortable outside the reservation, is set principally against the paradoxical world of Aristotle, an alcoholic failure” . Despite the animosity between the two, Seymour still regards Mouse as a “brother”, giving the impression that their kinship has failed to die despite the friction and passing time. Seymour is also reminded by Aristotle that “we’ve been helping you since you were born” , despite Seymour’s belief that Native Americans have done nothing for him. Once again, these scenes only further re-inscribe the stereotype of kinship.
The concept of the Indian princess is also incredibly prominent in Hollywood films. The Indian princess is mythologized as “beautiful and gracious” but is often saved by a heroic white male. In Peter Pan, the daughter of Big Chief (voiced by Candy Candido), Tiger Lily (Corinne Orre), is kidnapped by Captain Hook (Hans Conried). Hook leaves her to drown at Skull Rock after she refuses to divulge information concerning Peter Pan. Peter eventually comes to her rescue and returns her to her tribe, and it becomes apparent that she has fallen in love with Peter .
Pocahontas, arguably the most famous Indian princess, falls in love with the strong white male character John Smith. They quickly bond, fascinated by each other's worlds and end up falling in love. Smith and Pocahontas share a kiss. Smith asks Pocahontas to come with him, but she chooses to stay with her tribe. Smith leaves without Pocahontas but with Powhatan's blessing to return in the future. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocahontas_(1995_film)#Plot) (Original Story?!)
While Native women in Hollywood cinema tended to simply serve a romantic purpose, the women within the studied Native films play a more focal role in the plot of their relevant film. Sherman Alexie called Michelle St. John's character, Agnes Roth, in The Business of Fancydancing "the moral center of the film".
There are also strong independent women in Smoke Signals. Both Thomas’s grandma and Arlene Joseph raised their respective child alone and it could be argued that Thomas and Victor may not have had their life-changing journey were it not for the guidance of their mothers. (Why?) In Phoenix, the pair meet Suzy Song, another strong and independent woman . It appears that there could be a romantic connection between Suzy and Victor, but the film re-affirms its challenge to the Indian princess stereotype by preventing the development of the relationship.
Considering the political hardships and historical misrepresentations that Native Americans have endured, it is easy to understand the value and importance placed on visual sovereignty by them.
Sherman Alexie and Chris Eyre portray Native Americans in a more empathetic, accurate and positive light in all-Native productions such as Smoke Signals, Skins and The Business of Fancydancing. The visual sovereignty that these films provide has given filmmakers the opportunity to affirm less malicious Native American stereotype; drinking, secrecy and kinship, whilst effectively challenging all of the others.
It is my opinion that the Native American productions which we studied appropriately challenge the prevalent stereotypes established by popular culture and engrained in society. “Entrenched stereotypes and covert prejudices are reinforced when there is no alternative experience made available” , and these Native films offer a new perspective, a perspective that was previously unavailable. It is a great shame they did not reach a wider audience.