The history of ancient Egypt is littered with fascinating figures. Great pharaohs, a litany of gods, powerful queens, and famous officials abounded in this world, many of which live on through their buildings, inscriptions, and other artifacts that scholars study today. Out of a massive body of research, archeology, and investigation, we have been able to reconstruct an understanding of the life and times of many of these great figures who had such an influence on the course of Egyptian history. Of particular interest is Thutmosis III (also written as Thutmose III or Thothmes III), one of the great military minds of the New Kingdom and a powerful, influential pharaoh. Thutmosis III is one of the best known, and best understood kings in Ancient Egypt, and his rule and legacy are characteristic of the New Kingdom as a whole. In order to comprehend his effects on the Egyptian empire, it is necessary to examine the course of his life, his military and building achievements, and his role in the New Kingdom.
Before beginning the discussion of this great pharaoh, it is important to note that there is some debate among scholars about the timeline of Thutmosis III and his rule. All agree on the length of his reign, and, until recent years, the commonly accepted chronology put his ascension to the throne in 1490 BC. However, new examinations of the lunar date of The Battle of Meggido in regards to the chronology of his reign have indicated otherwise. Based on a better interpretation of his famous Annals of Thutmosis III, the battle’s incidence in his 23rd or 24th year of reign, and new contributions about the co-regency of Thutmosis III and his son at the end of his life, it is now accepted that his ascension to the throne and subsequent reign must have occurred either in 1504 BC or 1479 BC (Wente 1975, 267). Current sources remain split between the two years, but the discussion goes to illustrate an important point about the study of ancient Egypt. Getting precise information, be it dates or facts, about people that lived and died over three thousand years ago leans heavily on interpretation and puzzle work. While there are things we know to be fact, such as the existence of Thutmosis III or his many military achievements, much of the information has been inferred or constructed from ancient sources and historical dating. This uncertainty is an implicit part of the study of Ancient Egypt, and it is important that one keeps it in mind when examining the past. I will follow the timeline of a 1504 BC ascension accepted by Peter Clayton and The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt in this paper.
Thutmosis III was born in 1506 BC to the king of Egypt, Thutmosis II, and a lesser wife called Isis. A document describing a divine oracle proclaiming him to be the successor to the throne of his father was preserved in Karnak (Clayton 1994, 104). Thutmosis II would pass away two years later, thus establishing Thutmosis III to his throne in 1479 BC at the age of two. Due to his youth, Thutmosis III’s aunt and stepmother Hatshepsut was named Pharaoh, having previously been queen to Thutmosis II. Thutmosis III was thus made co-regent to his aunt, which created a very interesting and uncommon power dynamic in the following years. After the first few years of her reign, Thutmosis III was kept quietly in the background working with Egypt’s armies, while Hatshepsut made herself into a senior pharaoh and began to gather support for the legitimacy of her rule. She sought to emphasize that she had been specifically chosen by Amun to rule Egypt, and created many inscriptions of herself in the clothes of the king. Furthermore, she constructed a morturary temple to Amun at Dier al-Bahari, and took a female Horus title (Clayton 1994, 105). She was, however briefly, one of the most powerful women to be recognized as pharaoh. Thus, Thutmosis III spent the first 21 years of his reign in the shadow of his aunt, and though he was put in command of the military and lead several campaigns on her behalf, he is commonly thought to have resented her for it. In any case, Hatshepsut’s death in his 22nd regnal year made him the sole ruler of Egypt, fifth king of the eighteenth dynasty in the New Kingdom. While the average reign in this dynasty lasted about sixteen and a half years, Thutmosis III would rule for over 54 (Cline & O’Connor, 2006).
Many scholars believe that after he was raised to the throne in earnest, Thutmosis III began work on expunging the evidence and memory of his aunt. It is thought that, as a form of retribution for years removed from his rightful reign, Thutmosis had many of her statues destroyed, as well as having her removed from reliefs and stripping her inscriptions from the great temple that she had built (Cline & O’Connor, 2006). Again, this has been inferred from archeological evidence and some scholars argue that Thutmosis did not resent his mother and that she would not have put a resentful son in charge of her armies. It is possible that such a destruction of monuments would not have happened until the powerful religious officials who had served under Hatshepsut had died, or that this defacement was done as a measure to ensure that Thutmosis’s son, and not a descendent of Hatshepsut, would have certain right to the throne. Once again, it is difficult to separate fact from conjecture in the land of the pharaohs.
The New Kingdom was a time of militant expansion and conquest, and Thutmosis III was, perhaps, the pinnacle representation of this environment. Known as the Napoleon of Ancient Egypt, Thutmosis III had commanded the Egyptian armies before the death of Hatshepsut, and wasted no time in showing his military intelligence after it. After all, the divine responsibility of the king was keep Egypt united, and to protect it from its many enemies and the forces of isfet. Upon Hatshepsut’s death, the king of Kadesh moved his armies to Megiddo. In response, Thutmosis III moved his own troops north to Yehmen, where he was separated from the Canaanite forces by a large mountain ridge. While his advisors recommended traveling either to the north or the south along safe routes around the mountains, Thutmosis III decided to move his armies over the narrow and dangerous Aruna mountain pass directly over the ridge. This would turn out to be an astute strategic move, as the Egyptian armies would emerge from the pass directly between the forces of Kadesh and the fortified city of Megiddo. They would go on to route the Canaanites and capture much loot (Cline & O’connor 2006, 328-33).
Thutmosis is an interesting military figure to study not only because most historians regard him as a military genius, but because of The Annals of Thutmosis III and the incredible documentation of his conquests. His annals are inscriptions containing ancient Egyptian military records, found on a wall at the great temple of Amun in Karnak. Much is known about Thutmosis’s military conquest thanks to such record keeping, thanks in large part to his royal scribe Thanuny. Thanuny was the head of his armies and kept detailed records of his conquests and acquisitions, especially in the earlier part of his reign. The space in the temple that contains the Annals measures 12 meters wide by 25 meters long, and is the biggest and best detailed military record of all Egyptian kings (Breasted 1906, 163). The most detailed part of the Annals is the beginning, describing the battle of Megiddo, which affords us some useful knowledge about the campaign. Egyptian texts do have a tendency to be self-praising. For example, Thutmosis boasts of his bravery in leading his army over a mountain path wide enough only to pass “horse behind horse and man behind man” (Steindroff & Steele 1942, 53), while the actual path is known now and wider than this indication. However, historians have used the amount of time it took to move the army through the pass (coupled with the knowledge of its true dimensions), and the number of sheep and goats captured to estimate the size of both armies. The Canaanite force is believed to have been about 10,000 strong, while the Egyptian force may have been slightly larger (Redford 2003, 206).
This first campaign of Thutmosis III as king of Egypt is one of his most famous. The battle of Megiddo would be amongst the largest of his battles, and most significant. This victory allowed Thutmosis to travel up the Syrian coast, and in a short time span he had captured 3 cities and many more towns, and gained a foothold in northern Canaan, bending the Syrian princes to his power and causing then to submit their sons to Egypt as hostages. It marked the dawn of Egyptian power in Canaan and Syria, and the beginning of heavy expansion under Thutmosis III.
Between years 24 and 39 of his rule, Thutmosis III carried out 14 military campaigns against the north. There were three main centers of power in Western Asia opposing Egypt. Kadesh was the leader of a coalition of rebellious forces in the north on the middle Orontes River. Tunip was the second, occupying the lower Orontes river, and Mitanni stood beyond the Euphrates (Redford 2001). Thutmosis’s fifth, sixth, and seventh campaigns were directed at Kadesh and Tunip, in which he attacked and captured cities in southern Syria, garrisoning an area called Djahy that allowed him to ship supplies and troops back and forth from Egypt. Though he continued to capture cities and towns in Syria, rebellions continued to pop up in places like Ardata. In order to prevent more rebellions from popping up, Thutmosis III began taking hostages from the royal families in Syrian cities that he captured. He was known for treating his captures fairly, but used them to make those that he had conquered loyal to him (Redford 2003, 217-19). Thutmosis III continued his methodical campaigns to gain control over the enemies of Egypt.
The eighth campaign was carried out in regnal year 33, and was an assault on the state of Mitanni which required the crossing of the Euphrates river. Thutmosis III utilized several brilliant military tactics over the course of this campaign. Notably, he sailed his fleet to Byblos, from where he transported his fleet more than 250 miles over land through the use of ox carts. This move allowed him to quickly cross the Euphrates upon arrival, taking Mitanni entirely by surprise and defeating them with minimal opposition. Thus, one of the three major enemies of Egypt were struck down. After gaining control of the area, Thutmosis III left a boundary stela with inscriptions commemorating his crossing and denoting the northern reach of his empire (Redford 2003, 224) next to the stela of his grandfather, Thutmosis I. Thutmosis III continued to lead military expeditions each summer against Kadesh and Tunip until his 42nd year, when he finally captured Kadesh and absorbed the territory under Egyptian rule. His final Syria/Palestine campaign also invaded and conquered Tunip, marking the fall of the third and final major enemy in the north and effectively ending his wars in western Asia for the time being (Cline & O’connor 2006, 335). Over the course of his war against the north, he is documented to have captured over 350 cities. While less is known about Thutmosis III’s southern campaigns into Nubia, he built temples in Amada and Semna, and inscriptions in his temple in Karnak give some description. He pushed the southern border of his kingdom to the 4th cataract of the Nile (Clayton 1994, 110).
Thutmosis III was surely one of the great military minds of Ancient Egypt, but he was also known as a great builder. The loot from his many campaigns, as well as the tributes paid to him by those he conquered and captured, increased the wealth of the empire under Thutmosis III and allowed him to be an extravagant builder. He was responsible for the construction of over 50 temples during his reign, some of which have been found and some of which are known only from written records.