In the western world, Classicism is a particular styles and impulses that occurred from the Middle Ages to the 18th century, in which philosophy, literature, architecture, art, and music were greatly influenced by ancient Greek and Roman sources especially, from 5th and 4th B.C.E. Later on Neoclassicism did great justice to overlooked antiquity that was considered as the Age of Enlightenment.
Before 18th Century
In the Carolingian period (Middle Age) a monk Alcuin (c. 732–804) collected the significant manuscripts of classical works in the library of York and established an educational curriculum at the Palace School in Aachen. His development and promotion on a clear script based on classical principles (the Carolingian miniscule) and the copying and distribution of classical texts played a crucial role on education. The invention of printing provided the stable editions of classical texts to wider audience that led to the permanent establishment of classicism as an essential part of Western civilisation from the 14th century to the 21st century.
The Roman Academy, founded by Julius Pomponius Laetus (1428–1498), studied about the ruins of the ancient city of Rome and the antiquarian pupil collected and preserved coins, inscriptions, and buildings known as early development of modern archaeology. Their non-Christian belief and reviving of ancient pagan ceremonies brought them under the scrutiny of church authorities.
The Renaissance took great interest on the Greek and Roman architectural models and technique. This era not only saw the revival of the plastic arts (bronze casting for sculpture) but also the classical naturalism as the basis of painting, drawing and sculpture. It was Galileo who revolutionised natural philosophy to modern science thus transformed the scientific Renaissance into a scientific revolution. Even though, vernacular literature in the 16th century abandoned classical form, it adopted stylistic attributes of classical form as conventions of vernacular style and content. e.g. the work of French poets known La Pleiade and British plays by William Shakespeare (1564–1616).
In the baroque period, Jacques-Louis David tirelessly attempted to resurrect clarity, formal balance, manliness, and dynamism in art. The court of Louis XIV (1638-1715) with the references to the gods of Olympus (symbolic of absolutism) had a huge impact on the classicism. The modern European opera was the product of ancient Greek drama and music e.g. poetry and theatrical works of Dante, Petrarch and William Shakespeare. It was obvious that the study of Ancient Greek became integral part of Classicism for well-rounded education in the liberal arts.
18th Century: The Age of Enlightenment
The age of enlightenment is also known as the age of reason because a range of ideas were centred on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy that led to principles like constitutional government, tolerance, liberty, progress, fraternity, and separation of church and state. This age witnessed philosophical and intellectual movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe: “The Century of Philosophy”. People depended on the scientific method and reductionism. By now, the enlightened citizens began questioning of religious orthodoxy displaying “Dare to know” attitude.
Classicism in the science, philosophy, politics and art
This age witnessed the great enhancements and phenomenal discoveries in art, literature, politics, philosophy and science. Old dictionaries and encyclopaedia were changed from simply defining words to far more detailed discussions in the 18th-century that assisted to provide education to a broader audience. Specific volumes focused on secular affairs, science and technology, rather than matters of theology. People shifting from town to countryside became the setting for several plays however, the theatre attracted less audience due to popularity of novels and newspaper. The coffee houses were still a pivotal point for public life to socialise and share their knowledge. Since social hierarchies used to dominate the society, the writers and readers of the 18th century were largely affected by changes in their rights and daily experience.
British painter Sir Joshua Reynolds’s paintings based on Renaissance Classicism dominated a similar span of English and American painting. Following the footpath of Raphael and Augustan Rome, Jacques-Louis David re-established the formal classical painting standards (on the right “Oath of the Horatii”). Greek sculpture had an attraction having a noble simplicity and quiet grandeur that kept influencing 18th century’s sculpturer such as Antonio Canova. Emphasising on order, reason, precision, harmony and clarity, the second half of the 18th century still preserved important traditional or classical features. The works of Italian architect Andrea Palladio were based on Roman antiquity and on Renaissance Rome that provided standards of Classicism for English and American architecture as well. e.g. Chiswick House, Middlesex (1725). After the mid-18th century, rationalism was apparent in architectures based on classicism.
Developing the works of precursors such as Newton and Copernicus, the astronomers managed to locate new planets Venus and Uranus using refined telescopes and advance mathematics that were helpful to produce star catalogues as well. The existence of dark stars was brought into attention in 1783 by English natural philosopher John Michell. Later on, it became a foundation for mysterious and dreadful Black Hole to be studied by Albert Einstein. In chemistry, discoveries like air comprising various gases; leading role of oxygen for animal respiration and compound of oxygen and hydrogen to form water were major leap. Lavoisier’s finding challenged the phlogiston theory (a substance called phlogiston was released from flammable materials through burning) as a result, the oxygen-based theory of combustion drowned out the phlogiston theory.
In the late 18th century, the industrial revolution generated both solution and problem simultaneously. Rights became burning topics in politics and society that had a philosophical importance in Europe e.g. abolition of slavery, freedom of religion and rights for women. Now working class, women and African slaves were regarded with more sympathy and tolerance. In America, cultural exchange was in its height due to presence of high volume of African slaves and European immigrants from different countries thus, resulted in fresh social, cultural, political and musical ideas.
Social and Cultural Context of Classical Music
Music in the 18th Century truly influenced social, cultural, intellectual and political aspects as it had spanned extensively from late Baroque to the beginning of Romanticism. This remarkable credit goes to the most influential composers of the 18th century: Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Scarlatti, Salieri and Beethoven. Some composers worked for the churches whereas, other composers were employed by monarchies and aristocracies so gathering in church, appearance of foreign guests at royal court and presence of enthusiastic audience at theatre definitely had a profound effect on linguistic, philosophical, religious, cultural and social exchange. As painting, architecture and science progressed, Music was also developed dramatically in terms of expression, form and design. More emerging and developed foreign instruments were introduced in different countries such as guitar, clarinet, piano, bagpipe, trumpet, harp, kettle drum, galoubet, mandolin and pochette. Invention of more instruments and international music performance, created more employment and attracted wider musician. Since Bach and Handel were welcomed in London and Beethoven reached to Vienna for their promising career, they not only brought rich creativity but also a cultural experience along.
It is evident that by the late 18th century music took very dramatic turn to express and reveal the outmost feeling of human nature. Beethoven, a ladder to romanticism, is considerably the one who initiated this astounding expression with use of great dynamic range, amendment in musical form, style and instrumentation that solely represented German soul internationally. Various composers had their own cultural context in their music, which could not naturally be ignored. Whatever new style they created there was still a trace of their own geography, nation, ethnicity, history, politics, religion, previous experience and coexisted cultural expression. e.g. Various folk songs from the European countries, music based on royal or political occasions, festive or spiritual music and depiction of the landscapes of own homelands. Somehow, I am really attracted by the work called “Finlandia” composed by Sibelius. I have not been to Finland and I had hardly heard about this country but now I have a dream to visit it once and it was only possible because of the music that portray the friendly people, gigantic forest, fresh fountains, frozen lakes, charming mountains, colourful birds and flowers. Now, naturally I hold a huge respect for Finland, its culture and people.
The birth of opera was a milestone that had a great magnetism to bind various ideas, instruments, people, cultures and societies together. Splendid opera houses flourished across the great cities of Europe where innovative operas were premiered each season. Since Frederick Handel’s opera became very popular, the Royal Academy of Music sent Handel abroad to attract the finest singers to London that resulted in welcoming Senesino the famous castrato in London in 1710 with reward of £2000 per year. Gradually, operatic theatre became affordable and accessible to general people where all social classes could liberally intermingle and share their opinion and experience.
In summary, 18th century Classicism had an influential role in almost all the matters from earth to the stars and from human to the god. This century witnessed great development, exploration and discovery human kind had ever experienced and imagined.