Christianity has a widespread history throughout Asia, but in the Chinese context it has had an issue with integration. Christianity dates back nearly 1300 years in China, and has seen periods of flourishing as well as darkness. For example, a total ban of religious practices in the 1950’s to a sweeping rebirth of Christianity in the 1970’s. The current issues surrounding Christianity in China have been the unhealthy relationship between the Patriotic Catholic Church and the underground churches, as well as the Vatican’s response to religious restrictions. Overall, I will to help explain the current relationship between the Chinese government and the Vatican, as well as the current ecclesiological issues surrounding the Catholic church.
In 1949, Mao Zedong established the People’s Republic of China, which lead to all foreign Catholic Missionaries being expelled. Religion practices of all kind were made illegal as this new regime instituted a rule of atheistic communism. This historical moment has impeded religious advancement, but mainly christianity’s advancement in China for years because the church struggled to reach Chinese citizens. Chinese priests tried to convince the Communist government that the country’s Catholic Church would be able to operate independently, but Chinese Catholics ended up becoming targets. More than 1,200 Catholic priests, nuns, and citizens were arrested and detained (Cutler). Believers were persecuted harshly by the communist regime. Shortly after the establishment of Mao’s regime, the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association—a nationalistic version of the Catholic Church that adheres to the Chinese government— was founded (Fr. Christiansen). Its main goal is to exercise state supervision over Catholics in mainland China, causing many true practicing catholics to begin worshiping in underground churches. Typical catholic traditions and practices were limited by this association. For example, “Open prayers for the pope were strictly prohibited, and scant mention of the holy father could be found in any of the crudely printed books used in the cathedral. Mass was still in Latin, unintelligible to most Chinese” (Minter). The Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association can also elect bishops, which is an issue that concerns the Vatican because generally the Pope gets to name bishops of his choosing.
Meanwhile, throughout this time an “underground” church movement was getting started. This movement is composed of Chinese Catholics who swore loyalty to the Vatican and refused to worship in government-registered churches (Carter). These different groups generally have no organizational structure and typically revolve around bishops who have been ordained by Rome. The issue with these churches is that they tend to be narrow minded and have limitations of the ecclesiological views from the “west”. This signifies that the members of this church are not getting the full experience of your typical christian church. Another problem affiliated with these churches is the fear of heavy punishment, which causes services to be held in a secretive manner. For example, Enoch, a long-time underground Chinese christian, stated “We are trying to look more like a family that are here to chat and drink tea so no one will report us to the police.” These underground catholics tend to represent a 1950’s strategy that opposes Beijing, but the Catholic Church no longer enforces this policy. While it may seem like the underground and above ground churches are at “war” with each other, in reality they are generally pretty peaceful with one another. For example, many parishes are shared by both congregations, with the above ground using the church and the underground using church hall. The only difference being one can practice religion openly, and the other must do so in secrecy.
The current aforementioned two way system in China limits the Chinese Church’s ability to receive the full benefit that would come from being fully integrated with Rome. For example, when considering whether a particular church can be categorized as “full”, there must be present the supreme authority of the church, which consists of the episcopal college in connection with the Roman Pontiff (Benedict XVI). The reason consolidation of power is important for the Church is because without it, the Church will lack that foundation of unity, which is an integral part for religious communities. For example, Pope John Paul II explained this level of thought when he stated:
It is no secret that the Holy See, in the name of the whole Catholic Church and, I believe, for the benefit of the whole human family, hopes for the opening of some form of dialogue with the authorities of the People's Republic of China. Once the misunderstandings of the past have been overcome, such a dialogue would make it possible for us to work together for the good of the Chinese People and for peace in the world. (Paul II)
Restoring the foundation with the Vatican will allow Chinese Christians to get the full experience of the Church because by establishing a feeling of togetherness between all the particular Churches and the one Catholic Church, the unity of the faith and life of all Catholics will be guaranteed. However, in order for this to occur, it is necessary that every Bishop is in communion with the other Bishops and that all are in communion with the Pope. Being able to achieve the level of communion between the Pope and the bishops is currently the issue generating the most attention by Pope Francis. A deal was supposedly in place between China and the Vatican, but the deadline passed and the deal fell through. Updated reports suggest no deal is expected to be made in the near future. Bettering relations between the Vatican and China is extremely important for the Catholic Church because if stronger relations develop the Catholic Church may have an apostolic delegate in China, which is basically an ambassador for the Catholic Church, but he holds no diplomatic immunity since he does not work for the state.
One of the major reasons why Catholicism has stayed relevant in China is due to the fact that the Catholic church values the preservation of Chinese Culture. Many traditional Chinese citizens respect Catholicism due to the work of the Jesuits, but more specifically Matteo Ricci. Ricci tried finding a connection between Catholicism of the “west” and Chinese culture, and used this connection to truly reach the chinese people. For example, he truly respected Confucian culture, and even wore chinese clothing in order to connect the two very different cultures. This way of integration made an impact on a future chinese emperor by the name of Kang-Xi. Emperor Kang-Xi, who took power in 1661, reinstated the Jesuits who were wrongly accused, and declared that “All bishops should be restored to their former positions. All services of worship should be permitted to take place and not forbidden” (Wang). He wrote the words “sing tiara” meaning “respect for heaven” with the intent of it to be hung in the Catholic church within the Shunzhi Gate. He even a wrote a poem describing Christ’s suffering on the cross. He writes:
From the cross the crimson flow,
West to east, its blessings show;
Tried at midnight, bruised and torn,
Thrice denied at break of dawn.
To the ship His flesh is bare;
With the thieves they hang Him there;
Earth laments and fear strikes deep;
Christ is silent; thousands weep. (Kang-XI).
Kangxi’s poem reveals that he has knowledge of the four gospels, and knows the details of Jesus’ betrayal, trial and being nailed on the cross. This scenario of inculturation is why Pope Francis is not opposed to sinicizing. Inculturating, or “sinicizing” should make it possible to have an authentic Christian presence in China (Gallagher). This truly authentic Christian presence will present the true nature and the newness of the Gospel, but in a context that is deeply connected with the specific identity of the ancient Chinese culture.
The major issue surrounding the Chinese government and Catholic Church resonates with the struggle of power and authority between church and state. China is fearful that the Vatican will affect the current political state, and this complete misunderstanding and incomprehension serves the interests of neither the Chinese authorities nor the Catholic Church in China. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI specifically described the Church’s stance when he stated “Likewise, therefore, the Catholic Church which is in China does not have a mission to change the structure or administration of the State; rather, her mission is to proclaim Christ to men and women, as the Saviour of the world.” Pope Benedict XVI is clearly stating that the Church’s mission is not to change the political status of China, but rather promote the life of Jesus Christ to the Chinese people. The Second Vatican council explained it best by stating “The Church, by reason of her role and competence, is not identified with any political community nor is she tied to any political system. She is at once the sign and the safeguard of the transcendental dimension of the human person.” The Catholic church is not associated with any political association and the Chinese government should not have to worry. However, even though the Vatican claims that the Church will not interfere with politics, it gets a little confusing because they also state:
“Yet at the same time she cannot and must not remain on the sidelines in the fight for justice. She has to play her part through rational argument and she has to reawaken the spiritual energy without which justice, which always demands sacrifice, cannot prevail and prosper.”
This confusing rhetoric is part of the reason why China is hesitant to allow the Vatican’s presence in their country because they do not want any interference with their communist regime.
Even though the system in place of electing bishops may seem strange, which is the people from the diocese nominate three people and the Chinese government sends them to Rome with the purpose of the Vatican picking one, it is actually not an uncommon scenario. For example, when Napoleon Bonaparte was the emperor of France he too had a similar system with the Vatican, it was known as the Concordat of 1801. The agreement was between Napoleon Bonaparte and both clerical and papal representatives in both Rome and Paris. The agreement defined the status of the Roman Catholic Church in France and ended the breach caused by the church reforms and confiscations enacted during the French Revolution (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica). Similar arrangements were made with the Church in territories controlled by Napoleon, especially Italy and Germany.
Even though the Chinese government has moved away from the decade-long campaigns in an attempt to remove religion, the freedom to practice religion is still heavily regulated by the communist state. For example, the government recognizes only five official faiths (Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism), which means that religious groups who operate outside of these five faiths are susceptible to state suppression, and are denied any form of legal protection. Furthermore, the Chinese constitution implies that it bans any form of religious discrimination, but mentions nothing about freedom to practice religion. It states:
Citizens of the People’s Republic of China enjoy freedom of religion. No state organ, public organization or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not to believe in, any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens because they do, or do not believe in religion. The state protects normal religious activities. (Koesel)
By intentionally failing to define the freedom to practice religion, the communist regime is able to oppress certain religious group they are not in agreement with. Also, the wording “normal” religious activities is subject to interpretation. For instance, in the eyes of the Chinese government, it is not normal for Chinese christians to be affiliated with the Vatican.
As previously mentioned, religious oppression is a major issue regarding the Church in China. Many underground church members are heavily persecuted, and the situation does not seem to be improving within the state due to new strict regulations that carry a heavy punishment for violators. For example, under the new regulations, unauthorized groups would not be allowed to receive donations, provide religious information online, organize events related to their religious beliefs, and can even be fined up to 300,000 yuan (Zhou). The new restrictions eems to be making an impact because already a great deal of house churches have been affected by the strength of President Xi Jinping’s administration. For example, the administration arrested more than 500 house church leaders in 2015 and more than 600 in 2016 (Zhou). Also, many churches have been getting searched, torn down or being forced to remove their crosses. This issue is of major concern for religious institutions, especially the Vatican, because it is impossible for chinese catholics to get the full experience of the Church if they are constantly living in fear.
While there has been advancement in recent years, in order for Chinese Christians to further relations between the two churches and advance the progression of religious freedom, they need to follow the footsteps of one man: Aloysius Jin Luxian. Aloysius Jin Luxian was a jesuit priest and a vatican loyalist. However, he was named Shanghai bishop in 1988 by the Patriotic Association, and accepted the job because he wanted to help ease the religious tension. This evident when he states “I believe all the teachings on faith in the Holy Church…I will try my best to take care of the spiritual and material needs of the clergy and faithful as well to observe the Constitutions and Laws of the People’s Republic of China” (Jesuit Archives of Taipei, Jin Luxian File). He was a perfect example of a man who wanted to remain loyal to the Vatican, but also stay faithful to his home nation. For example, while remaining obedient to the laws of the Communist government of China, he was writing letters to foreign bishops describing the political persecution taking place in China, and asking for donations to rebuild the Chinese Church (Clark). Jin’s advancement with regards to the Catholic Church in China should not go unnoticed. For instance, Jin recovered church property and rebuilt congregations, installed Chinese-language masses into Shanghai-area churches against the wishes of the authorities, and translated the New Testament. Jin walked the thin line between recognizing the authority of the government while sticking to what he believed was most basic and important to Catholicism in China, and has set a precedent for what other Chinese priests should do.
Due to the polarized religious situation in China, a new wave of “Cultural” Christians has emerged. Cultural Christians is “someone who has accepted Christian beliefs, but who for a number of practical reasons is unwilling to join a church, and who feels uncomfortable among self-organized Christian groups” (Leung). They refer to themselves as “Cultural” Christians in order to rationalize their religious choice, as well as to remain a safe distance from regular Christians. They are capable of holding onto a biblical faith and engaging in theological reflection in the Chinese cultural context. For example, Leung states:
They are people who care about social and cultural development, and hope through a comparison of Chinese and Western culture they can determine the reasons for China's backward development and explore possible directions for the future. (Leung)
Cultural Christians are a reflection of Christianity in modern China because they transform Christianity from a positive religion into a mystical one. They do this in order to prevent their faith from interfering with their public life and affecting their political privileges and/or work. This is evident that christians are still discriminated against in China, and what they face today is a more subtle form of prejudice.
Contrary to the popular belief that the church in China can only learn from the church in the West, bettering relations between the Vatican and China would allow the church in the west to learn from the church in China. For example, the majority of the spectacular growth took place after believers had been stripped of everything we normally associate with church: Bibles, church buildings, denominations, pastors, and trained leaders (Pittman). Furthermore, God has preserved and prospered his church in China for one chief purpose—to spread the gospel to the unreached peoples of China and beyond.