Perhaps one of the greatest obstacles currently facing humankind is finding a solution to ensure world peace. Despite being such a lofty task, numerous intergovernmental organizations have been established with the goal of creating a more peaceful earth. One of these intergovernmental organizations is the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The IAEA is an IGO headquartered in Vienna, Austria. It is an independent organization, but it works very closely with the United Nations and adheres to the Principles and Purposes of the United Nations Charter. The IAEA is primarily involved in affairs concerning nuclear technology, but is ultimately an organization dedicated to striving for world peace (“Relationship with the United Nations”).
Since the IAEA is such a massive organization, it has a wide array of roles and responsibilities. According to the Objectives Statement in the Statute of the IAEA, ”The Agency shall seek to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world. It shall ensure, so far as it is able, that assistance provided by it or at its request or under its supervision or control is not used in such a way as to further any military purpose.” This Objective Statement essentially covers the purpose of the IAEA, but its functions need to be more explicitly and specifically elaborated. Six primary departments carry out the functions of the IAEA. These departments include the Department of Technical Cooperation, the Department of Nuclear Safety and Security, the Department of Nuclear Energy, the Department of Safeguards, the Department of Management, and the Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications (“Our Work”).
One function of the IAEA is to support member states in their pursuit to develop nuclear technology for their own peaceful benefit. The IAEA primarily accomplishes this task through its Department of Technical Cooperation. The Department of Technical Cooperation helps member states with nuclear technology development by contributing equipment, technological support, human resources, training, and research (“What We Do”). The Department of Technological Cooperation is primarily focused on backing developing nations engaged in the development of nuclear technology (“The IAEA Mission Statement”). The Department of Nuclear Sciences and Application also has responsibilities similar to the Department of Technical Cooperation. The Department of Nuclear Sciences and Application also cooperates with member states for the intention of developing nuclear technology. However, the The Department of Nuclear Sciences and Application puts a greater emphasis on applying nuclear technology research for social and economic development, particularly in the areas of health, agriculture, the environment, and commerce (“Nuclear Techniques for Development and Environmental Protection”). Additionally, the Department of Nuclear Energy functions to provide technological research and developmental backing to nuclear facilities within IAEA member states (“Department of Nuclear Energy”).
Another function of the IAEA is to implement safety regulations that apply to all IAEA member states. The Department of Nuclear Safety and Security is responsible for creating and implementing these rules and regulations. Particularly, the Department of Nuclear Safety and Security creates regulations that ensure safety with nuclear technology (especially with regards to nuclear radiation), inspects nuclear facilities, and determines whether or not they comply with IAEA regulations (“Nuclear Safety & Security”). The Department of Nuclear Safety and Security also assists member states in implementing safety regulations through the Global Nuclear Safety and Security Network (“Global Nuclear Safety and Security Network”). Additionally, the Department of Management is primarily tasked with handling clerical work for the IAEA. Clerical work the Department of Management is responsible for includes financial accounting, organizing meetings, managing information technology, human resources, and management of documents and archives (“Department of Management”).
Perhaps the most important department of the IAEA is the Department of Safeguards. The primary duty of the Department of Safeguards is to uphold the peaceful development of nuclear technology and inhibiting states from using nuclear technology for weapons or other violent purposes (“Department of Safeguards”). Numerous treaties, such as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, have been instituted in order to legally bind nations to a commitment to abstain from developing nuclear weapons (“IAEA Safeguards Overview”). It is up to the Department of Safeguards to ensure that states adhere to the terms of these anti-nuclear weapon treaties. The Department of Safeguards is able to accomplish this by using various verification techniques, such as auditing, conducting surveillance, environmental tests, and on-site analyses of nuclear facilities. Most of the inspections the Departments of Safeguards administers are usually routine, but occasionally they’ll be administered on an unannounced basis. The Department of Safeguards will usually use these techniques to verify state reports on their declared nuclear facility activity (“IAEA Safeguards Overview”). Additionally, most nations within the IAEA are currently subjected to “Additional Protocols” that also conform to anti-nuclear weapon treaties. The concept of Additional Protocols came into being after Iraq and North Korea got away with developing nuclear weapons at undeclared nuclear facility locations in the early 90s. Essentially, Additional Protocols allow the Department of Safeguards to investigate undeclared nuclear facilities and allow the Department of Safeguards to conduct even more comprehensive inspections of nuclear facilities than what would be allowed under the regular terms of an anti-nuclear weapons treaty. Interestingly, each Additional Protocol is negotiated individually between each state and the IAEA and each Additional Protocol is uniquely tailored for each state (“Additional Protocol NTI”).
The IAEA is a relatively old IGO. It was founded in 1957 during the height of the Cold War. During this time period, the world watched in fear as the development of nuclear weapons rapidly advanced. U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower was also deeply troubled by the presence of deadly nuclear weapons and he addressed his concerns to the United Nations General Assembly in his “Atoms for Peace” speech. In this speech, Eisenhower advocated for the establishment of an IGO that would monitor nuclear technology activity, prevent the pursuit of nuclear weapons, and promote the peaceful use of nuclear technology. Eisenhower’s speech was profoundly inspirational and played a large role in convincing world leaders to create the IAEA (“International Atomic Energy Agency”). Perhaps one of the biggest developments in the history of the IAEA came in 1968 when the The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was negotiated. A key aspect of the NPT allowed for the IAEA to enforce the “safeguards” that would prohibit the further proliferation of nuclear weapons by nuclear and non-nuclear weapon states (“Non-Proliferation Treaty”). The NPT was officially authorized in 1970 after 43 non-nuclear weapon states and 3 nuclear weapon states (the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union) signed the treaty. France and China, the two other nuclear weapon states, would eventually sign the NPT in 1992 (“Timeline of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT)”). Currently, 190 states are bound by the terms of the NPT. Four states (India, Pakistan, South Sudan, and Israel) have never ratified the NPT and North Korea departed from the NPT in 2003 (“Nuclear Nonproliferation”). Additionally, in 1997, the IAEA was allowed to implement Additional Protocol agreements for member states (“Additional Protocol IAEA”).
An overwhelming majority of nations are members of the IAEA. Currently, IAEA membership stands at 169 (“List of Member States”). If a nation wants to become a member of the IAEA, it must undergo a lengthy process to become eligible for membership. First, a nation must forward a formal letter to the Director General requesting IAEA membership. Then, the IAEA Secretariat will take the nation’s membership application and forward it to the IAEA Board of Governors. The Board of Governors will then review the membership application and determine whether or not the nation is worthy of IAEA membership. The Board of Governors uses the Purposes and Principles of the Charter of the United Nations as a guideline to decide whether or not a nation is worthy of membership. If the nation cannot honor the Purposes and Principles of the Charter of the United Nations, it will not be in consideration for IAEA membership. If a nation is deemed worthy, the Board of Governors will then notify the IAEA General Conference about the nation’s membership application. The General Conference is ultimately the agency that will officially confirm IAEA membership for an applying nation. After the General Conference officially grants membership, the IAEA Secretariat will then inform the nation that filed the membership application. The nation must then send an Instrument of Application for the Statute of the IAEA to U.S. Department of State. After the Department of State verifies the Instrument of Application, IAEA membership will officially be enacted for the applying nation. Other IAEA member states will be notified immediately once a new nation is officially admitted (“Process of Becoming a Member State of the IAEA”).
Three main agencies make up the structure of the IAEA. These agencies include the General Conference, the Board of Governors, and the Secretariat (“The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) – Structure”). The leader of the IAEA is known as the Director General and the current Director General is Yukiya Amano of Japan. The Director General is appointed by the Board of Governors and is confirmed by the General Conference. The Director General serves four year terms, which are renewable. The Director General’s role is to manage the activities of the Secretariat. As mentioned earlier, six departments comprise and carry out the responsibilities of the Secretariat. These departments include the Department of Management, the Department of Nuclear Safety and Security, the Department of Nuclear Sciences and Application, the Department of Technical Cooperation, the Department of Safeguards, and the Department of Nuclear Energy. Additionally, five offices directly work with and assist the Director General. These offices include the Secretariat of Policy Making Organs, the Office of Internal Oversight Services, the Director General’s Office for Coordination, the Office of Public Information and Communication, and the Office of Legal Affairs (“International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Secretariat”).
The General Conference and the Board of Governors are both responsible for enacting IAEA policies. The Board of Governors is composed of 35 different member states. 13 of these members are permanent. Only the states with the most advanced nuclear technology are allowed to be permanent members. Additionally, Africa, North America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, the Far East, the Pacific, Latin America, the Middle East and South Asia, and Southeast Asia are all required to have representation as permanent member states. The General Council is responsible for electing the other 22 non-permanent members of the Board of Governors. These non-permanent members serve 2 year terms. 4 of these members must come from Western Europe, 4 from Africa, 5 from Latin America, 3 from Eastern Europe, 2 from the Middle East and South Asia, 1 from Southeast Asia and the Pacific, and 1 from the Far East. 2 additional members may come from the Middle East and South Asia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific, or Africa (“The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) – Structure”). The Board of Governors usually convenes 5 times a year and has multiple responsibilities at their meetings. Among these responsibilities include approving the IAEA budget, appointing the Director General of the IAEA, creating safeguards for non-proliferation treaties, reviewing IAEA membership applications, create an Annual Report for the IAEA, and voting on General Conference proposals (“Board of Governors”). Most votes for Board of Governor actions must be approved by a ⅔ majority (“Rules and Procedures of the Board of Governors”).
The General Conference is composed of all IAEA member states and every member state is granted a vote. The General Conference will usually meet only once a year. Most of the meeting consists of the General Conference voting on and approving proposals from the Board of Governors. The General Conference will vote on and approve the Board of Governor’s budget, Director General nomination, safeguards, Annual Report, and other various proposals. The General Conference is also responsible for electing the non-permanent members of the Board of Governors and suggesting policy proposals for the Board of Governors. The General Conference also submits the Board of Governor’s Annual Report to the UN and finalizes agreements with the UN (“The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) – Structure”). Like the Board of Governors, most important votes are decided by a ⅔ majority (“Rules of Procedure of the General Conference”).
The IAEA currently operates on a massive budget. The IAEA’s 2018-2019 budget is approximately €555,000,000 in total. About 71% (or €362,500,000) of the budget is designated for the Operational Regular Budget. Funds in the Operational Regular Budget are used to cover the basic operational costs of the IAEA. About 1% (or €8,100,000) is designated for the Capital Regular Budget. Funds from here go towards infrastructure investment (“The Agency’s Programme and Budget 2018–2019”). Both the Operational Regular Budget and the Capital Regular Budget make up the Regular Budget of the IAEA. Member states are mandated to contribute money towards the Regular Budget (“Budget”). €321,554,570 was contributed from member states towards the 2018 Regular Budget, with the United States contributing the most money at €81,696,281 (or approximately $100,000,000) (“Scale of Assessment of Member States’ Contributions towards the Regular Budget for 2018”). The second largest part of the IAEA budget is the Technical Cooperation Budget. It comprises 18% of the budget and is appropriated with €97,800,000. All money appropriated for the Technical Cooperation Budget obviously goes towards the Department of Technical Cooperation (“The Agency’s Programme and Budget 2018–2019”). Unlike the Regular Budget, contributions towards the Technical Cooperation Budget are not mandatory and are completely voluntary. Voluntary contributions can come from IAEA members and non-IAEA actors (“Budget”). The remaining 16% (€87,600,000) of the IAEA budget is extrabudgetary funding (“The Agency’s Programme and Budget 2018–2019”). Extrabudgetary funding is also voluntary and its funds are used to carry out activities that aren’t covered by mandatory funding (“Extra-budgetary Projects”).