Post 9/11, terrorism gained a lot of attention at the global stage with its definition and dimensions being discussed and debated at various global platforms. With an increase in awareness about terrorism came the demand for knowledge of effective counterterrorism measures. Counter-terrorism strategies and policies developed by various states that had dealt with terrorism, such as the United Kingdom, Pakistan, India etc became subjects for analysis and discussions. In the 1990s, Russia had dealt with terrorism during the First Chechen War under President Yeltsin. Failure of Russia’s counterterrorism measures led to its loss in the first Chechen War. However, Russian counter-terrorism measures during the Second Chechen War, under President Putin, proved to be a success and Russia was able to successfully end its counter-terrorism operation in Chechnya on 16th of April, 2009. In this term paper, I will discuss the reasons as to why Russia was successfully able to deal with terrorism in the Second Chechen War. The reasons I will be focusing on includes, reforms in Russian Legislation dealing with terrorism, an exertion of control over the media and installation of a pro-Kremlin leader in Chechnya. In the first and second section, the paper will discuss the definition of terrorism and provide a brief history of both the First and the Second Chechen War, respectively. While the third, fourth and fifth section will provide an analysis of each reason that made the counterterrorism operation successful, the sixth section will provide an argument that some of the counterterrorism measures used went too far in dealing with terrorism. The final section will summarize the key conclusions of the paper.
The definition of terrorism has been a matter of debate among academics and politicians. Just like State and Sovereignty, it does not have a clear-cut definition on which we can rely upon. Terrorism, however, has certain qualities that may be employed to characterize it. Firstly, Terrorism is political in nature, that is, it is intended to bring or call upon political changes in the society. An example of this is the IRA (Irish Republic Army) use of bombings to keep the issue of Northern Ireland in the British headlines and to intimidate the British government to secure changes favourable for the IRA. Secondly, Terrorism is caused by non-state actors. These are opposing groups who do not have the political power or authority to bring in changes they desire hence they resort to unorthodox measures. But this quality can be argued with as terrorism can also be executed by the state. Authoritative Regimes such as those of Saddam Hussain and Joseph Stalin are prime examples as to how states intimidate their citizens through acts of terrorism. Thirdly, Terrorism is characterized by its nature of attacking non-combatants who are dependent upon the state for security. Its intention is to create a psychological effect in the minds of the population being attacked, to create fear that the state is unable to protect them. Owing to this, people force the government to bring in changes more favourable to what the terrorists demand. This is one of the reasons why terrorism (e.g suicide bombings) operates better in democratic regimes rather than authoritative ones. Perhaps the most simple and objective definition for terrorism is the one given by Political Scientist Sunil Khilnani who states, ” Terror is simply a tactic, a method of random violence, likely to be used by a deranged individual as by a state”. As I will go about the paper, I will also argue that whilst the Chechens did commit acts of terrorism, some of the acts committed by the state in the name of counter-terrorism might also be termed as terrorism.
On 26th of December 1991, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governing body of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, met and declared the dissolution of the USSR. As a result, 15 new independent republics were to form. Russian Federation was the largest state created out of it, and Chechnya was to be a part it.
In September 1991, Dzokhar Dudayez, head of the informal Chechen Opposition, with the support of the militants threw the communist government of Doku Zavgayev out of Chechnya. In the following month, on 26th of October 1991, Dzokhar Dudayez was elected as the President of Chechnya-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic through a state-wide referendum. After his election as the President, he declared the republic independent as Chechen Republic of Istekeria, which was immediately denied by Yeltsin, President of the newly-formed Russian Federation. However as Yeltsin had other “ bigger “ issues” to deal with, de-facto independence status of Chechnya remained till the start of the first Chechen War in 1994. Chechnya’s state under Dudayez began to deteriorate as Chechnya became more militia controlled than government controlled. Grozny, the capital of Chechnya, became the most prominent black market centres for weapons and the most significant drug trafficking hubs in the former Soviet Union. Opposition to Dudayez rule became severe when he faced his first coup in March 1992. It was around this time that Yeltsin and his government started to take the Chechen issue seriously. In October and November 1994, opposition elements in Chechnya, backed by the Russian government, tried to storm Grozny but were put down by Dudayez loyalists. On 30th of November 1994, President Yeltsin signed the Presidential Decree No.2137, to restore constitutional law and order to Chechnya.
On 11th of December 1994, the First Chechen War began. The Russian forces were meant to reach Grozny within three days however it was not until 27th of December that Russian troops reached Grozny. On New Year’s Eve, the Russian forces stormed Grozny, but they met with stiff resistance. On 18th of January 1995, Chechen General Aslan Maskhadov gave the order to retreat to the mountains and Russians were now free to claim the capture of Grozny. Brutal fighting however continued in the mountains. The deadlock broke when in June 1995, a group of Chechen fighters led by Shamil Basyez, a Chechen field commander, staged the Budynossk hospital hostage crisis which resulted in a ceasefire between the two parties. However, when the truce ended, heavy fighting once again continued. On 21 of April 1996, Dudayez got killed by two homing missiles. Dudayez’s assassination gave Yeltsin the victory he could utilise in his re-election bid which he would go on to win. However, as Yeltsin swore in for his second term, the militants stormed Grozny which would result in the victory of the Chechen militants in August 1996. It was at this point that Russia decided to end its campaign in Chechnya. Khasavyurt accord was signed on the 30th of August 1996, ending the First Chechen War. Federal troops withdrew, and Chechnya granted autonomy. However, its constitutional status was still undecided.
After heavy, intense fighting during the First Chechen War, Chechnya had finally realised its dream of independence. However, it became more of a nightmare than a dream. Just like Dzhokhar Dudayez’s rule, Chechnya again became more militia controlled rather than government controlled. Opposition to Aslan Maskhadov rule grew, and Russia found new allies to deal with the Chechen problem, the most prominent of which was the Chechen Chief Mufti, Ahmad Kadyrov. The sick and ageing Yeltsin had selected Vladimir Putin as his successor for the 2000 Presidential elections. Putin needed an opportunity to prove to the public about him being a reliable and capable leader, and Chechnya presented itself as the opportunity. On 7th of August 1999, Shamil Basayev and the commander of the Mujahideen, Ibn-Khattab invaded the neighbouring republic of Dagestan, a part of the Russian Federation. Stiff resistance from the Dagestani population met the rebels until the Russian forces arrived to push back the rebels to Chechnya. Cross-border bombing raids on the insurgents and onto Aslan Maskhadov government meant that Russia was ready to given Basayev and Ibn Khattab the war they wanted. Making the situations worse, a series of apartment bombings in Moscow in September 1999 which led to almost 293 deaths were blamed on the Chechens. As a result, Putin and his government’s pro-war stance gained popularity amongst the Russian population. On 1st of October 1999, Aslan Maskhadov and his government were deemed illegitimate, and Putin stated, “ There is no border with Chechnya. “ It was now the Second Chechen War.
The bombings in Chechnya as of result of the Dagestani invasion had already begun the war informally, but it was not until October that ground forces arrived. By November, the Russian troops had surrounded Grozny, and in December, the third battle of Grozny began. On 6th of February 2000, Russia declared Grozny as “ liberated. “ The following months were spent in bombarding the mountains to drive out the rebels. In May 2000, Moscow announced that it was taking direct control over Chechnya and in June, Akhmad Kadyrov, Chief Mufti and former dissident, was appointed as the interim head of the Chechen government. In 2002, Shamil Basayev’s men staged the infamous Moscow theatre hostage crisis in which 179 civilians lost their lives. The following year, Chechnya became part of the Russian Federation with Akhmad Kadyrov as its President. However, Akhmad Kadyrov rule would be short-lived as he would be assassinated on May 9th, 2004. On September 1st, 2004, the Beslan Massacre, once again staged by Basayev, occurred resulting in the death of 331 people, amongst them 186 children. The Chechen dream came to an end when Aslan Maskhadov died in 2005. Following year, Shamil Basayev got killed by a miss-handled mine. The Second Chechen War finally came to an end on 16th of April 2009, when Ramaza Kadyrov, son of Akhmad Kadyrov and now President of Chechnya, and Dimitri Medvedev, Russian Prime Minister, officially announced the end of Russian counter-terrorism operation in Russia.