Nicole Kim
APES
15 August 2018
Silent Spring – Rachel Carson
Chapter 1: A Fable for Tomorrow
Carson opens the book with a detailed depiction of a town in the heart of America. The town, filled with grand fields and farms of flourishing plant and animal life, was thoroughly enjoyed and appreciated by travelers and locals alike. Suddenly, having been struck by something unknown, it turns into a land of death and drear. No longer a natural wonderland, the dismal town witnesses the inexplicable deaths of all things living. Illnesses arose in adults, birds were found sick or dead, animals were unable to reproduce, and apple trees remained unpollinated in the absence of bees. Once a thriving and lively place with vibrant seasons and endless beauty, the small American town was quickly silenced by the hands of destruction. This calamity was not due to some magic spell cast on the land, but the result of a fine white powder scattered across rooftops–a product of the people’s actions. Carson warns that although the town is fictional and no single town has experienced all of the listed misfortunes, they are very real issues that occur everyday as a result of human-induced destruction.
Chapter 2: The Obligation to Endure
Earth’s history is marked by interactions between livings things and the environment. Vegetation and animal life have typically been influenced by their surroundings, but in more recent times, humans have imposed countless changes, turning the tables as their actions mold the environment. In the relatively short period of time that humans have populated the Earth, they have poisoned it through the use of toxic chemicals. For instance, Strontium 90, which is exposed by nuclear explosions, pollutes rainwater and contaminates soil, which enters what is grown in it, and eventually invades the consumer’s body. The irreversible contamination of the Earth’s land, air, and water continues to occur at a frightening rate (~500 new chemicals per year in just the US). In the past, a delicate balance was held in place to protect life against the potential dangers of natural radiation and chemicals. This was possible because change would occur gradually over millions of years, allowing organisms to adjust to their environment. However, as people constantly introduce synthetic pollutants into the environment, the modern world has stripped the earth of that precious time needed to acclimate.
Especially after DDT was released for common use, chemicals have been applied to yards and farms as a way to combat pests and unwanted weeds in “man’s war against nature”. Prominent issues associated with the use of these pesticides is the harming of organisms outside of the intended target and the dangerous accumulation of chemicals in organic tissues, making them more of what Carson calls “biocides” than pesticides. Furthermore, insecticide usage has drastically increased because many insects have developed immunity and therefore, people continue to introduce even deadlier chemicals. The public is told that pesticides are necessary to maintain farm production despite the fact that more than one billion tax dollars are put towards the US surplus-food storage program, meaning there is an overproduction problem. Carson emphasizes that insects do need to be controlled, but with caution and rationality.
Before the introduction of modern, single-crop farming, farmers had few problems with pests. However, newer methods leave crops vulnerable because they do not keep in mind the natural balance of the Earth. For example, elm trees used to line city streets, but they were eradicated by a beetle species. Had there been a more diverse assortment of trees, it is likely the beetle would not have wiped out the elms. Moreover, the introduction of foreign species leads to the invasion of other territories due to the lack of predators. For example, nearly half of the 180 major insect enemies of plant life in the US are accidental imports from other countries. Quarantine and massive chemical campaigns done to combat these invasions have proven to be ineffective and harmful. Despite having learned environmentalists and a wealth of information regarding the delicate balance of life and environment at our disposal, they are ignored, along with alternatives to chemicals, and instead, chemicals are pushed forward by government agencies without any consideration of their negative effects. Carson notes that specialists and industries are blinded by their own thoughts and desires for profit, and so, it is imperative that the public decide for themselves on matters regarding pesticide use.
Chapter 3: Elixirs of Death
Although synthetic pesticides have been in use for a rather short time, they have become incredibly widespread. With chemicals plaguing water sources, animals, plants, and soil, for the first time in history, every human is subject to exposure to dangerous chemicals. The industry for the production of man-made chemicals has grown exponentially. It bloomed in WWII, during which chemical warfare agents were found to be deadly to insects. These man-made insecticides wield the power to not just poison the body, but to alter vital processes in deadly ways. For instance, they destroy enzymes, block off energy sources, prevent the proper functioning of vital organs, and cause cancer. Still yet, new deadly chemicals are manufactured and production rates continue to grow, with a five time increase in pounds of synthetic pesticides made between 1947 and 1960 in the US. While carbon-based compounds have become more popular, a few inorganic pesticides persist. One such being arsenic–a highly toxic mineral. Historically, it has been used as a killing mechanism due to its tasteless nature, has cancer causing properties, and has been the culprit behind poisoning epidemics that have indiscriminately killed humans, animals, and plants. Nevertheless, it can still be found in various weed and insect killers and is widely used. For example, cotton is dusted with it in the South to kill insects. In turn, the bee industry was exterminated because the arsenic wiped them out.
Modern insecticides, represented mainly by chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as DDT, and organic phosphorus insecticides, like malathion and parathion, are even deadlier. Both types are carbon-based compounds that have been composed from altered methane molecules. Because carbon has almost an infinite capacity to bond with other molecules, it is very versatile. First created in 1874, many do not realize DDT’s harmful properties because its powder form was used against lice during WWII. However, its liquid form is much more toxic and accumulates in the body’s fat cells and organs over time. Fat is a biological magnifier, so the amount of DDT increases, as it inhibits essential enzymes and other crucial body function, eventually leading to chronic poisoning. Chemicals are transferred through the food chain. Food that had been dusted with DDT is fed to animals and humans. In fact, scientists have discovered insecticides in human breast milk and even the placenta. Other chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as chlordane, heptachlor, and dieldrin, are also widely used in crop spraying, and have been found to be much more toxic than DDT. The most noxious pesticide, endrin, is 300 times more toxic than DDT to birds. There was an instance in which a child whose family sprayed their home with an insecticide that contained endrin was debilitated for life due to the chemical exposure. Organic pesticides were discovered by a German chemist and were used as nerve gas in war. Although there is an enzyme that naturally protects the body from organic phosphates, the frequent exposure rids the enzyme of its defensive properties. Organic phosphates are commonly used for farming and gardening. Seven million pounds of parathion, a common organic phosphate, are used on US fields despite its poisonous and fatal effects. Additionally, malathion, which is used in many households, when combined with other chemicals inhibit the body’s defenses and become infinitely deadlier. Carson compares systemic insecticides to the Greek myth of Medea; a sorceress poisons her husband’s bride because he betrayed her for political gain. When the bride put it on, she suffered a violent death. Similarly, insecticides are meant to be toxic to the insects that prey on them. However, their toxicity can be unintentionally transferred to other living beings. Herbicides, which are used to target plants like weeds, are not only toxic to plants, but also to animals, leading to them being banned in other countries. Dinitro, pentachlorophenol, and aminotriazole–types of herbicides–have cancer-causing qualities that can be passed down through generations. Carson questions how people can be so concerned about the effects of radiation and not be concerned with the synthetic chemicals that pollute our environment.
Chapter 4: Surface Waters and Underground Seas
Water is essential to humanity’s livelihood as it is the most precious natural resource available. Even though it covers much of the earth, its uses are limited because the majority of it is salt water; creating the issue of limited supply. Now, due to man’s indifference, water pollution by radioactive and domestic waste, pesticides, etc. has become alarming. Chemical mixing is a huge threat, especially since chemical interactions are poorly understood. Since synthetic chemicals began to be mass produced in the 1940s, water purification has become more complex. Whether it be directly spraying water to rid it of unwanted organisms, or indirectly contaminating it through agricultural runoff, the growing use of insecticides has made identifying what chemicals are contaminating our waters an incredibly difficult task. Evidence shows that streams and public water supplies have been compromised by chemicals. Carson includes examples of insecticide-ridden fish near an orchard in Pennsylvania and stories of streams and drinking water that contained lethal toxins even after going through purifying plants. Furthermore, fish upstream were found to be affected by DDT, which suggests that even groundwater is a threat to clean water. This means that all water sources are under constant threat, regardless of location.
Groundwater’s immense reach is exemplified by the story of a farming district in Colorado that had been contaminated by poisonous chemicals from a manufacturing plant miles away. Farmers reported dying crops and livestock. It was discovered that in only about seven or eight years, the chemicals had traveled with groundwater and polluted local wells, which tested positive for 2,4-D–a chemical that had not been produced at the plant, but naturally formed as a combination of chemicals. As chemicals are released into the environment, they transform through various methods, making them unpredictable and potentially dangerous. Chemicals also cause damage through food chains. Often times, insecticides are used on small organisms, which are consumed by larger ones, and eventually humans. There have been several cases, such as in wildlife refuges and lakes, where animals drop dead due to the consumption of chemicals sprayed in their habitats. A huge problem is bioaccumulation, or biomagnification, where poisonous chemicals become more concentrated as they move up the food chain, which humans are at the top of. Scientists have learned of chemical spread at the cost of contaminated water sources. Even public drinking water is a threat, as it can be tainted with chemicals that are known to cause cancer. Carson states that “in nature nothing exists alone”.
Chapter 5: Realms of the Soil
Soil supports life. No soil means no plants, no plants means no animals, and so on. Its existence is based on the interactions between living and nonliving things. For instance, soil is the child of rock that has been worn down by water and lichen and is in a constant state of change. It’s full of miniscule organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and algae. These three elements are
Chapter 6: Earth’s Green Mantle
Chapter 7: Needless Havoc
Chapter 8: And No Birds Sings
Chapter 9 : Rivers of Death
Chapter 10: Indiscriminately from the Skies
Chapter 11: Beyond the Dreams of the Borgias
Chapter 12: The Human Price
Chapter 13: Through a Narrow Window
Chapter 14: One in Every Four
Chapter 15: Nature Fights Back
Chapter 16: The Rumblings of an Avalanche
Chapter 17: The Other Road