Jillian Brauninger
Dr. Nelson
Sociology 101
14 December 2017
Final Project: Medicine and Healthcare Institution
1. Sociological Perspectives
The sociological institution of medicine and healthcare can be analyzed using both the social conflict theory perspective and the functionalist perspective. The social conflict perspective can be seen throughout the multitude of healthcare inequalities that exists throughout the United States and the world. Carles Muntaner reiterates this point in his article entitled “Barrier to Knowledge Production, Knowledge Translation, and Urban Health Policy Change: Ideology, Economic, and Political Considerations.” He explains how the health inequalities that exist within urban areas are the result of inequality of power (Muntaner et al. 916). Much like the social conflict theory explains how the proletariat, or the workers in sociological terms, have a major power disadvantage when compared to the bourgeoisie, or those who own the means for production, Muntaner acknowledges that the powerful groups benefit at the expense of the less powerful groups (Muntaner et al. 916). The social conflict theory is applicable to healthcare and medicine in this sense because those who are richer within a society receive much better medical care than those who do not have the “means for production.” Not only do regular people battle each other for the spot of the bourgeoisie in the field of medicine and healthcare, but big business is also competing with the everyday person in a social conflict manner. Wealthy insurance companies often benefit more than the citizens, in general, especially those citizens who are in poorer circumstances. In the functionalist perspective, insurance companies can be seen as a dysfunction of healthcare and medicine. While the function is obviously the care and keeping of an individual, insurance companies make sure that they get their money before a person gets healed. Health insurance does still help reduce the cost for the average person, but for those who cannot afford healthcare insurance, it does nothing but increase their disparity and decrease the level of care available to them. According to an article entitled “Healing Alone?: Social Capital, Racial Diversity and Health Care Inequality in the American States,” “As of 2011, about 16% of Americans live without any health care coverage…about 25% of people in households with income less than US$25,000 had no health care coverage…” (Zhu, 1060). The income disparity issue directly affects healthcare as a dysfunction on top of an already dysfunctional insurance system. However, some may argue that there is a need for disparity within the healthcare field. If everyone is getting wonderful care at the same price, then there is no better care to be had. Personally, a Canadian friend of my family has explained the function and dysfunction of the universal care system that is established there where everyone receives the same care. According to her, there is a wonderful thought in the function that everyone receives free healthcare equally. However, the unthought dysfunction that arises is that with everyone receiving healthcare is that there are much longer wait times to get in to see a doctor and a shortage of doctors. She explained to us that it can take up to two months sometimes to get into the doctor for a cold. Everything in medicine and healthcare has a function and a dysfunction. There is also a lot of discrepancy between the proletariat and bourgeoisie in the healthcare field. These two perspectives are very interesting to consider given the current debate within the United States over healthcare. These perspective both bring inside to the corruption of insurance companies and the failure of equal health care.
WC: 577
Citations:
Muntaner, C., Chung, H., & Murhpy, K. (2012). Barriers to knowledge production, knowledge translation, and urban health policy change: Ideological, economic, and political considerations. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 89(6), 915-924. doi:10.1007/s11524-012-9699-1
http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=19&sid=bd6529d1-b0a4-4bb3-8f1a-282ab5e053d9%40sessionmgr101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=84580178&db=ofs
Zhu, L. (2017). "Healing alone?": Social capital, racial diversity and health care inequality in American states. American Politics Research, 45(6), 1059-1087. doi:10.1177/1532673X17721195
http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=17&sid=bd6529d1-b0a4-4bb3-8f1a-282ab5e053d9%40sessionmgr101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=125730878&db=ahl
2. Culture
Many people have different views on healthcare. This can shape each society’s cultural view of medicine. For example, many people choose not to vaccinate their children. This is a view not held by the institution itself, in fact it is quite contrary to the value of the institution. However, some societies different values cause them to have different norms, such as not vaccinating. Often this decision will be based on a religious or cultural basis. The norms of medicine have also changed greatly over time. For example, at one time, bloodletting was a popular medical practice that is no longer seen as sanitary, safe, or sane. The norms of medicine are constantly changing as new innovations are discovered and fads and trends gain, and lose, popularity. However, the institutional values have remained the same throughout the years, even though their approaches to mediate those norms have changed. The institution itself values, and has always valued, health and self-care. The only thing that ever changes with this value is the way that doctors approach this situation. As we discussed in class while reading “Behavior in Public Places: The Sociology of the Vaginal Examination by James Henslin, there is a culture that some patients must be treated differently based on the context of care they are receiving. Because the practice of going to an obstetrician or gynecologist is such a personal journey, doctors are told to imagine the patients simply as pelvises in order to make examination more comfortable for both the patient and the doctor (Henslin 194). There is very much a a culture to make care for the patient a comfortable experience. (Hence, the pain pill addictions that follow for many. Medicine is an institution that can make them feel good.) While the pelvic examination issue is simply one part of the comfort culture, doctors even have a comfort culture for themselves. The doctors of the earlier 20th century did what made them comfortable, too. Many doctors smoked while they gave examinations and did not discourage their patients from doing the same. This shows that culture is constantly changing seeing as how in today’s modern time, this would be a heavily frowned upon practice. Popular culture can also influence the healthcare culture. With the abundance of medical dramas that now exists throughout the world. According to an article by Brian Quick, a professor at the University of Illinois-Urbana/Champaign, the portrayals of doctors and medicine on popular TV shows can influence the way that patients see their doctors. The patients expect hot, caring, and compassionate doctors and are dissatisfied when that is not what they receive (Quick 44). Ideals influence what people consider proper medical practices. This is a very interesting and new advancement in the healthcare culture. Everything that a society determines healthy can be considered a social determinant of health, and these determinants can, and do, change from culture to culture.
WC: 479
Citations:
Henslin, James M.; Biggs, Mae A. Behavior in Public Places: The Sociology of the Vaginal Examination. 193-204
Quick, B. L. (2009). The Effects of Viewing Grey's Anatomy on Perceptions of Doctors and Patient Satisfaction. Journal Of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(1), 38-55. doi:10.1080/08838150802643563
http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=15&sid=bd6529d1-b0a4-4bb3-8f1a-282ab5e053d9%40sessionmgr101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=37154078&db=aph
3. Socialization
The institution of health and medicine socializes its members by educating them to a great extent. It is arguable that those in medicine and healthcare are some of the most educated professionals. Almost anyone with a well-paying career in medicine has at least a four year degree. The professional members of the institution, being the doctors, nurses and other professionals, are socialized to know what to do and expect within the field based on their many years of proper education. The professional members of the institution have a profound effect on socializing the everyday citizens that make up the institution. The average citizen member of the institution is socialized through the readings published by the professional members of the health and medicine institution, and by the care that they receive from said professionals. They are also socialized by being told, culturally, that they should go to the doctor for regular check-ups. The health norms and cultures are also a very socialized thing. Many people don’t smoke because they are told that it is bad for them. Likewise, many people do smoke because they are socialized that it is cool when they see others do it. Typically, the importance of healthcare is more socialized within western countries. However, a large reasoning for this push for health is because these countries are more likely to have the means for production. The push for health is directly associated with the countries economic status. If a person has met their daily needs on the hierarchy of needs, they are more likely to be able to be able to satisfy the health requirements that a western culture would push. Some current challenges that arise with the socialization of medicine is providing information that is true and accurate. This is something that any institution would struggle with in today’s modern world. Information gets spread around so quickly, it is hard to know what is reliable and what is not before it is being broadcast around the world. Medicine is also heavily socialized by how it is portrayed in the media (Chung, 335), as previously mentioned in the culture section. The portrayal often is inaccurate and thus people get the wrong perception of medicine and healthcare. Popular culture also socializes unhealthy habits such as unprotected sex, drugs, alcohol consumption, and fast food. The media and popular culture play a big role in what people’s healthcare perceptions are, but they are not the only thing that have an effect. Health is also socialized throughout families. People often follow the example set out for them. This is best explained through a sociological and psychological principal called modeling, in which leading by one’s actions is set into effect. For example, if a person’s parent is a smoker, the child will be more inclined to try it themselves, thus modeling the behavior set forth for them by their parent. Medicine is socialized within the institution itself educationally, within the media, and within the patients themselves and the decisions that they make.
WC: 500
Citations:
Ahsan, M. K., & Bartlema, J. (2004). Monitoring healthcare performance by analytic hierarchy process: a developing-country perspective. International Transactions In Operational Research, 11(4), 465-478. doi:10.1111/j.1475-3995.2004.00470.x
http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=6&sid=bd6529d1-b0a4-4bb3-8f1a-282ab5e053d9%40sessionmgr101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=bth&AN=13424214
Chung, J. E. (2014). Medical dramas and viewer perception of health: Testing cultivation effects. Human Communication Research, 40(3), 333-349. doi:10.1111/hcre.12026
http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=11&sid=bd6529d1-b0a4-4bb3-8f1a-282ab5e053d9%40sessionmgr101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=2014-18156-001&db=psyh
4.Social Structure
The social structure of medicine and healthcare can be seen within the hospital and clinic setting and outside of it. The hospitals themselves have their own structure, and then the government, lobbyists, and patients have their own structure to keep the institution in check. The head of the institution, within the United States of America, would be seen as the American Medical Association. The American Medical Association has the ability to control pretty much anything that is publicized about their institution. In fact, the American Medical Association and the American Academy of Family Physicians once controlled even the televised shows about their institution (Tapper, 394). The government still has a say in what medical practices look like in the United States, however, the American Medical Association is one of the biggest lobbying organizations in the country, and they are keen on making sure that their agenda passes. In countries with universal healthcare, the head of the institution would not be an association, but would be rather the government. The government institution plays a key role in the medicine and healthcare institution because they get to regulate what medicine practices are legal in a given society. The medical field has its own hierarchy within it. Within hospitals and clinics, there is a hierarchical structure. With hospital administration executives, such as CEOs, at the top, they are followed closely by doctors, who are followed by nurses and then technology assistants. Medicine is very much a care team, and while there are separations by occupational titles, everyone works together for the common good. The social structure of medicine is much more hierarchical than it used to be when small towns simply had the local “medicine man.” However, some societies still practice in this manner. Third world, or developing, countries and smaller, rural areas of the United States still tend to practice in this “medicine man” manner. The social structure of medicine in these countries and rural areas is not nearly as great as it is in developed countries. Sometimes, the person who is the “doctor” never even completed high school, much less medical college. Although, with technology this type of setting is few and far between. However, they do still exist. The city and globalized countries, however, practice in a way similar to that was previously mentioned with hospitals and clinics ran by a healthcare team.
WC: 393
Citations:
Tapper, E. B. (2010). Doctors on display: the evolution of television’s doctors. Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center), 23(4), 393–399.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2943455/
7. Global Stratification
The conflict theory perspective is very applicable in the global stratification of the medicine and healthcare institution. Throughout the world, with the exception of those countries with universal healthcare, the rich get much better care than the poor. The poorer nations within the world also get much worse healthcare than world leaders, such as the United States of America or Great Britain. There is a big discrepancy between those who have the means for healthcare and those who do not. For this reason, many impoverished countries still have diseases that have otherwise been eradicated within the United States, such as tuberculosis and measles. The medicine and healthcare institution does its best to help the global stratification issue. However, they have yet to eradicate the issue. There are many organizations within the institution that help to aid the poorer countries in their quest for health security. These organizations assist the institution by providing aid efforts throughout the world, including the third-world areas such as Africa and Haiti. A few of these organizations are well-known, such as the American Red Cross or Doctors without Borders. There are also many smaller ones, just hoping to make their mark on reducing the global health stratification. The healthcare stratification of the world has improved, but there is still so much that needs to be done. There is even stratification between the way the media portrays these social, medical issues. Almost everyone remembers a few years ago when the ebola outbreak was on the forefront of everyone’s minds. Eventually, people stopped talking about it. The media didn’t really cover it much, and life went on (Baranto). However, that doesn’t mean that the issues themselves ceased. There is still Ebola in Africa, although at a reduced rate than it once was. People just are no longer concerned with the issue because it no longer gets the media coverage that it deserves. Stratification is, and has always been, challenged by the building of the aforementioned aid and humanitarian groups. These groups help to reduce the disparity between the rich and the poor countries by providing the impoverished countries with medicine and medical technologies that they would be otherwise unable to afford. Global stratification is a major issue, and it, surprisingly enough, doesn’t just affect the impoverished countries. Even world-leading countries can still experience stratification at its finest. According to “The Social Stratification of Health in Russia: Trends in the 1990s and 2000s” by N.L. Rusinova, following post-soviet Russia, there was an abundance of social stratification between the health of both males and females (Rusinova, 22). This shows that even world leading countries like Russia can still experience major health stratification issues. The issue of stratification stretches so much farther than our own backyards, and is a huge problem within the entire world.
WC: 465
Citations:
Barnato, K. (2015, July 23). Ebola: Out of the news but still hitting Africa. Retrieved December 13, 2017, from https://www.cnbc.com/2015/07/23/ebola-out-of-the-news-but-still-hitting-africa.html
Rusinova, N. L., & Safronov, V. V. (2013). The social stratification of health in Russia: Trends in the 1990s and 2000s. Sociological Research, 52(5), 18-39. doi:10.2753/SOR1061-0154520502
8. Stratification in the U.S.
The stratification of medicine within the United States of America is a very big issue currently, and it has been a large subject of debate in recent political campaigns. Many people believe that Americans need to get a system of universal healthcare, similar to our Canadian and English counterparts. They feel this way because in the current American healthcare system, those who can afford health insurance, which has exuberant costs, receive better healthcare coverage than those who receive governmental care, such as medicare or medicaid. Americans recognize that the stratification of health is a major issue within their own nation (Della Costa). Many Americans feel that this is unfair because they feel that healthcare coverage is a universal right. Personally, I have experience with this issue. My family has wonderful medical coverage, but it costs us over $900 a month for three people. My mother works solely for insurance, and barely brings anymore into the household income after paying for insurance. My sister, who has a family of her own, cannot afford insurance herself, so her family is on government regulated health care. The care that they receive is terrible in comparison to what my mom, dad, and I have, but there is no way that she can afford to pay the amount that we do for good health insurance. This current system ensures that those who have the means to pay for insurance get good care, while those who cannot afford it either bankrupt themselves trying or they recieve subpar governmental care. With the giant income gap seen within American society, affording health care insurance is not an option available to everyone. This ever-increasing problem as the gap between incomes has become ever more pressing. According to “Using Multiple-Hierarchy Stratification and Life Course Approaches to Understand Health Inequalities: The Intersecting Consequences of Race, Gender, SES, and Age,” health differs by social standing — including, but not limited to, education, income, wealth, and job prestige. Those with more prestigious occupations are much better off when it comes to receiving valid healthcare (Brown et al.). Conflict theorists would say that the rich keep the poor in check by limiting their access to the best healthcare possible. The functionalist perspective would say that the function of stratification is that those who pay for the care receive the best care because they pay for it. However, the dysfunction here is that not everyone gets the same care, so more individuals are left to suffer more than others simply because they do not have access to the same things. Hopefully, the United States healthcare debate can soon come to an end, but for any progress to be made checks and balances need to be made on the insurance companies and the cost of medicine and the insane amount of stratification these issues add to the income inequality.
WC: 472
Citations:
Brown, T. H., Richardson, L. J., Hargrove, T. W., & Thomas, C. S. (2017). Using multiple-hierarchy stratification and life course approaches to understand health inequalities: The intersecting consequences of race. gender, SES, and age. Journal of Health and Sociological Behavior, 57(2), 200-222. doi:10.1177/0022146516645165
Costa, C. D. (2015, March 28). 9 medical procedures that cost way too much. Retrieved December 13, 2017, from https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/personalfinance/2015/03/28/cheat-sheet-expensive-medical-procedures/70442260/
9. Sex and Gender
Women and men are treated in similar manners in the health and medicine institution except for when it comes to reproductive health and employment. Until very recently, women were not a major factor within any science field, and if they were, they were nurses. This is on the upward rise as more na more women are going to medical school. However, while women are becoming more prevalent within the institution, they still receive different care. Women are unfortunately told what to do with their bodies on the regularly. Women are regularly told to terminate pregnancies and to practice birth control. However, this isn’t fair considering the old saying, “it takes two to tango.” The way that women currently receive care does not reflect this motto. Women are often the ones that receive the most blame for their situations. In some societies, women receive better healthcare and have a true value, such as the Netherlands. In others, women’s health does not hold the same value. There are many countries that practice unsafe and hazardous forms of women’s health, such as female circumcision in some parts of Africa. In the past fifty years, women’s position in the world has greatly changed and thus so has their position within medicine and healthcare. Women are on the upward trend, but if they can truly reach a point of equality and respect within medicine and healthcare, then their own sense of health will increase. According to “Trends in Gender-Based Health Inequality in a Transitional Society: A Historical Analysis of South Korea” by Heeran Chun, if a woman feels enhanced in her health status and the gap in care is closed, then her overall health will increase as well (Chun). If a woman gains rise, and get treated the same as a man, then ultimately her health will improve. Similarly, if women has a higher standing within the healthcare and medicine institution, then her overall happiness and life will be better (Ngcuka). This point, made by Phumzile Mlambo Ngcuka, the Executive Director of United Nations – Women, can be further applied. Not only will a women be in happy standing with her own life, but when better informed and having increased access, she will be able to prevent sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and unplanned pregnancies. She will be able to start her family and live out her dreams and aspirations (Ngcuka). Because women recieve subpar care, they are not able to achieve as many things as they could because they are held back by their healthcare limitations. Around the world, women are deprived of their need for basic health care. There is no perfect society; no society in which man and woman are one-hundred percent equals. Thus, this inequality makes equal men’s and women’s healthcare near impossible. Women’s issues are not the only sex and gender issue within the healthcare institution. Those who are in LGBT standing are also discriminated against. According to “Health for All?: Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and the Implementation of the Right to Access to Healthcare in South Africa,” sexual and gender minority patients experience discrimination, stigmatization, and denial in health care systems throughout the world (Müller, 196). While this study was done in South Africa, the issues that are addressed here are human rights concerns and are applicable to any country, situation or civilization. Those who identify as their gender they’ve created rather than their sex assigned at birth or those who are homosexual tend to get treated differently than their heterosexual counterparts while receiving healthcare. Women and people within the LGBT communities are seen as minorities when it comes to science and the treatment of individuals. Things are slowly getting better for both groups, but there is still lots of room for improvement.
WC: 622
Citations:
Chun, H., Cho, S., Khang, Y., Kang, M., & Kim, I. (2012). Trends in gender-based health inequality in a transitional society: A historical analysis of south Korea. Journal of Preventative Medicine and Public Health, 45(2), 113-121.
https://creighton-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo-explore/openurl?%3Fsid=Refworks&charset=utf-8&__char_set=utf8&genre=article&aulast=Chun&auinit=H.&title=Journal%20of%20Preventative%20Medicine%20and%20Public%20Health&date=2012&volume=45&pages=113-121&issue=2&atitle=Trends%20in%20Gender-Based%20Health%20Inequality%20in%20a%20Transitional%20Society:%20A%20Historical%20Analysis%20of%20South%20Korea&spage=113&au=Chun,Heeran&au=Cho,Sung-Il&au=Khang,Young-Ho&au=Kang,Minah&au=Kim,Il-Ho&vid=01CRU&institution=01CRU&url_ctx_val=&url_ctx_fmt=null&isSerivcesPage=true&lang=en_US
Doyal, L. (2001). Sex, gender, and health: The need for a new approach. Education and Debate, 323, 1061-1063.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1121552/
Mlambo-Ngcuka, P. (2017). Sexual health women's rights. Harvard International Review, 46-49.
https://creighton-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo-explore/openurl?%3Fsid=Refworks&charset=utf-8&__char_set=utf8&genre=article&aulast=Mlambo-Ngcuka&auinit=P.&title=Harvard%20International%20Review&date=2017&pages=46-49&atitle=Sexual%20Health%20Women%27s%20Rights&spage=46&au=Mlambo-Ngcuka,Phumzile%20&vid=01CRU&institution=01CRU&url_ctx_val=&url_ctx_fmt=null&isSerivcesPage=true&lang=en_US
Müller, A. (2016). Health for All? Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and the Implementation of the Right to Access to Healthcare in South Africa. Health And Human Rights, 18(2), 195-208.
http://web.a.ebscohost.com.cuhsl.creighton.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=4&sid=10314306-4de3-417f-b278-f7d5a1aa45d0%40sessionmgr4006&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcCZzaXRlPWVob3N0LWxpdmU%3d#AN=28559686&db=cmedm
10. Race and Ethnicity
Race and Ethnicity play a very large part in how patients are treated within the healthcare and medicine institution. People who are different often receive different treatments because of racist understanding of the healthcare providers. This remains a large problem in the United States of America for those in African American, Arabic, or Middle Eastern descent. In South Africa, there is a big racial disparity between the whites and blacks, and this translates into the care that each group receives based on the racial understanding of the given group and that prejudices the providers choose to believe (Müller). While this is a major issue within the world, including the United States, it has gotten better. According to study entitled “Racial Disparities in Health Care Access Among Pediatric Patients with Craniosynostosis,” there was only a correlation between race and age at consultation. There was no correlation with family characteristics like income or parental education. While this study does only examine one type of disease in children, it is still a good indication that healthcare has gotten better for minority races over time considering their treatment in prior decades. During the 1950s and 1960s, racism was a big issue, and thus those who were different received subpar care. In fact, the Tuskegee Syphilis study can prove this in a great, yet terrible, way. The African American citizens taking place in this study were told that they were taking part in a study to cure syphilis. However, they were not given any treatment to cure the syphilis, and they all died. This was done in accordance with the fact that they were black. The blacks, during this time, were often evaluated as subhuman. The current challenges of race and ethnicity within healthcare and medicine align with those of stratification, especially within the United States and South Africa. The poorer people in those nations tend to be of minority status, typically black. Black people also have a higher risk of developing certain diseases due to the additional stress that accompanies their minority status. African American women are fifty-one percent more likely to develop diabetes, 9.3% more likely to develop diabetes and 44.4% more likely to have hypertension than their caucasian counterparts (Leigh, 461). This allows for a disparity between the care they receive because they are more likely to have bad health. This could all be improved if there was less racism and more acceptance throughout the world. Many people are working on ways that they could reduce these disparities. According to “Missed Opportunity?: Leveraging Mobile Technology to Reduce Racial Health Disparities” by Rashawn Ray et al, giving people innovative ways to access their health care will help to reduce this racial disparity (Ray, 901). . As technology advances, there are more opportunities to help reduce the discrepancy that is seen. However, at the end of the day, it more likely than not, will boil down to taking down our socially-constructed barriers, and just being nice to one another.
WC: 496
Citations:
Brown, Z. (2016). Racial Disparities in Health Care Access Among Pediatric Patients with Cranionsynostosis. Journal of Neurosurgery., 18, 269-274.
https://creighton-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo-explore/openurl?%3Fsid=Refworks&charset=utf-8&__char_set=utf8&genre=article&aulast=Brown&auinit=Z.D.&title=Journal%20of%20Neurosurgery%20Pediatrics&date=2016&volume=18&pages=269-274&atitle=Racial%20Disparities%20in%20Health%20Care%20Access%20Among%20Pediatric%20Patients%20with%20Cranionsynostosis&spage=269&au=Brown,Zachary%20D.&au=Bey,Amity%20K.&au=Bonfield,Christopher%20M.&au=Westrick,Ashly%20C.&au=Kelly,Katherine&au=Kelly,Kevin&au=Wellons%20III,John%20C.&vid=01CRU&institution=01CRU&url_ctx_val=&url_ctx_fmt=null&isSerivcesPage=true&lang=en_US
Leigh, W. (2012). The Affordable Care Act and Its Potential to Improve the Health of African-American Women. The Review of Black Political Economy., 39, 461-464.
https://creighton-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo-explore/openurl?%3Fsid=Refworks&charset=utf-8&__char_set=utf8&genre=article&aulast=Leigh&auinit=W.A.&title=Review%20of%20Black%20Political%20Economy&date=2012&volume=39&pages=461-464&atitle=The%20Affordable%20Care%20Act%20and%20Its%20Potential%20to%20Improve%20the%20Health%20of%20African-American%20Women&spage=461&au=Leigh,Wilhelmina%20A.%20&doi=10.1007s%2F12114-011-9104-4&vid=01CRU&institution=01CRU&url_ctx_val=&url_ctx_fmt=null&isSerivcesPage=true&lang=en_US
Müller, A. (2016). Health for All? Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and the Implementation of the Right to Access to Healthcare in South Africa. Health And Human Rights, 18(2), 195-208.
http://web.a.ebscohost.com.cuhsl.creighton.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=4&sid=10314306-4de3-417f-b278-f7d5a1aa45d0%40sessionmgr4006&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcCZzaXRlPWVob3N0LWxpdmU%3d#AN=28559686&db=cmedm
Ray, R. (2017). How Health Policies Affect Health Equity: Missed Oppurtunity?: Levaraging Mobile Technology to Reduce Racial Health Disparities. Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law., 42(5), 901-924.
https://creighton-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo-explore/openurl?%3Fsid=Refworks&charset=utf-8&__char_set=utf8&genre=article&aulast=Ray&auinit=R.&title=Journal%20of%20Health%20Politics,%20Policy%20and%20Law&date=2017&volume=42&pages=901-924&issue=5&atitle=How%20Health%20Policies%20Affect%20Health%20Equity:%20Missed%20Oppurtunity%3F:%20Levaraging%20Mobile%20Technology%20to%20Reduce%20Racial%20Health%20Disparities&spage=901&au=Ray,Rashawn&au=Sewell,Abigail%20A.&au=Gilbert,Keon%20L.&au=Roberts,Jennifer%20D.&vid=01CRU&institution=01CRU&url_ctx_val=&url_ctx_fmt=null&isSerivcesPage=true&lang=en_US
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