Essay: Dissociative Identity Disorder / Schizophrenia / Depression (literature review, online sources)

Dissociative Identity Disorder
1. Eduardo:
“DSM History.” psychiatry.org, American Psychiatric Association, 2016,
https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm/history-of-the-dsm
This web page begins by illustrating the need for a classification of mental disorders, and the issues associated with finding a consensus on the matter. Stating that over the past 2000 years the many classifications of mental disorders have varied greatly in their emphasis on phenomenology, etiology, and course as defining features. Some mental disorders may include less than a dozen categories, whereas others include thousands. The author concedes that the history of classifications it too expansive to be summarized in a single web-page, and thus, this article focuses specifically on the development of the DSM and the mental disorders section in the International Classification of Disease (ICD). This source provides an in depth history of classifications of mental disorders, simultaneously outlining major shifts in public opinion and acceptance of mental disorders, throughout western society. While this web page addresses the overall effect of Western societal views towards the mentally ill, how has the view and acceptance of those who are affected by mental disorders changed in non-Western cultures?
2. Juliana Huertas
Bowlby, L. X., & Briggs, D. (2014). Living with the reality of Dissociative Identity Disorder:
Campaigning voices. London, UK: Karnac Books. Retrieved from
http://site.ebrary.com.ezproxy.fiu.edu/lib/FIU/reader.action?docID=10923872&ppg=16
Essentially, this book is a compilation of stories of those who have been diagnosed with Dissociative Identity Disorder. The book provides the general explanation of what DID is and the experiences many people have regarding this disorder. Each chapter is written in first person; each being about a different person diagnosed with DID. The common struggles of DID are elaborated; from the many misdiagnoses, to the suffering and memory loss, as well as the way they have combatted the symptoms. The story of Kim Noble and her journey with DID, which seems to be an average experience, is explained in the second chapter. The third chapter highlights the spiritual elements that some may attribute to DID and how Nicky Robertson deals with his personalities having different spiritual viewpoints. The fifth chapter focuses on how a support group, family, and friends can change and affect the experience as well as the recovery for someone with DID. The rest of the chapters also include and elaborate more on different aspects of DID, including the medical standpoints, dealing with denial, and ways to live with and overcome this disorder. Even though this book gives useful insight on people’s experience and how they have handled this disorder, are these aspects of DID, as well as the many ways these people have come to terms with their disorder, universal; across all cultures? Does every culture interpret Dissociative Identity Disorder in the same way?
3. Erick
Daeho, Kim (2016, March 23). Dissociative Identity Disorder in Korea: Two Recent Cases.
Retrieved October 05, 2016, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4823204/
The articles begin with a curious fact. “Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is rarely reported in Asia. It is so uncommon that some authors have speculated that DID is a culture-bound syndrome primarily found within Euro-American cultures. In fact, DID does appear in Asian countries, though its prevalence is much lower than that in Western countries.”  The article goes on to explain the experience of two Korean patients and their different alters and their various differences. The various alters, each having their own mannerisms and roles. There were in both cases an alter who was aware of the other personalities and would give an overview of them. It is interesting to note that these two cases are the only reported cases of DID in the last 15 years, since they were admitted in 2014. This is speculated to be due to the cultural influence of shamanism and the high number of possession disorders in eastern society. Would this be because it is easier for the families to accept that their loved ones have been possessed instead of accepting them as having a mental disorder? How would this differ in western culture?
4. Azariel Mendez
Mueller-Pfeiffer, C., Rufibach, K., Perron, N., Wyss, D., Kuenzler, C., Prezewowsky, C., Rufer,
M. (2012). Global functioning and disability in dissociative disorders. Psychiatry Research, 200(2-3), 475-481.
Dissociate Identity Disorder (DID) is one of the most detrimental branches from the Dissociative Disorder (DD) group. With a number of symptoms that go from memory loss to a switch in the patient’s alter ego, it has driven psychologists to study the disease for years. This article is yet another attempt to shine some light into the disease by focusing on everyday activities and compares individuals suffering from a DD to any other with a different mental disease. The initial hypothesis portrayed that patients who had been diagnosed with some type of DD, specifically DID would develop a stronger degree of difficulty when facing daily events like personal hygiene, healthy social life and human cognition. In order to collect their data, the researchers performed the study in Switzerland using as volunteers mental patients from counties like St. Gallen and Zurich. After filtering out those individuals who suffered of mental retardation, strong suicidal tendencies and addictive behaviors, they were able to proceed into testing their hypothesis. The results of the study indicated that due to the complexity of the symptoms from DID patients, they can face more obstacles on their daily life rather than those who suffer from a milder Dissociative Disorder. Unfortunately, this article only took into consideration people from Switzerland. Would a cross-cultural comparison be the next step?
SCHIZOPHRENIA
1. Priscilla Colon
Bell, M., & Bruscato, W. (2002). Object relations deficits in schizophrenia: A cross-cultural comparison between brazil and the united states. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190(2),73-79. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.fiu.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.fiu.edu/docview/619755553?accountid=10901
In this study, the researchers compared Brazilian and American outpatients with Schizophrenia, to see the deficits related to object relations. Bell et al., used a sample which had validity in alienation and egocentricity. This sample showed that there is a similarity with Brazilians and Americans in where the patients were on the higher scale of the BORI (Bell object relations inventory). The BORI was used as a true or false answer test and scored in four object relations. The object relations that were scored are egocentricity, social incompetence and insecure attachment. Overall the researchers found that the BORI and giving the patients a PANSS interview after a couple of days showed that there was no difference when it came down to gender nor age. The evaluation of this Journal was useful for the group topic which is Schizophrenia. However, it should have been more detailed on the study the researchers conducted. In this journal there were many objects to be questioned such as why did the Brazilians only use female students studying psychology for their norm sample?
2. Susana Ramirez
Heinrichs, R. W. (2003). Historical origins of schizophrenia: Two early madmen and their illness.
Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 39(4), 349-363.
In this article they speak about the brief history of Schizophrenia. They talk about it in relationship to when the symptoms of schizophrenia came about. The author speaks about two cases that could have been schizophrenia but since they were prior to the nineteenth century they were not documented as such. The author highlights how culture and history could have made a huge influence in how people behaved back then and since we have very little knowledge of this, it makes it extremely difficult to determine that these cases of what seemed like schizophrenic behavior could have definitely been just that. This article made it interesting in understanding symptoms of this condition. It also made it interesting in how comparisons were made between when symptoms presented and what was going on at that specific time in a historical context. For example, witchcraft and magic could have been reasons why a person was hallucinating. I like how it was socially accepted as okay then but now something like this would be a little farfetched. This article is a great read for our topic on schizophrenia and culture and how it has changed over time. Is it fair for us to judge what seemed like irregular and bizarre behavior back then as schizophrenic symptoms in our times now?
3. Douglas Stevens
Susanne M. Bauer, H. S.-H. (2011, May-June). Culture and the prevalence of hallucinations in
schizophrenia. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52(3), 319-325. Retrieved from
www.elsevier.com/locate/comppsych
This journal article explores hallucinatory phenomena from the perspectives of different cultures worldwide. The analysis examines the range of phenomena characterized by auditory, tactile, olfactory, cenesthetic, and gustatory hallucinations. What one culture may view as symptoms of mental illness, another might view as a manifestation of divinity and foreknowledge. Emerging from the various interpretations of the results from numerous cross-cultural studies, a uniform sequence took shape; the most common experienced hallucinations were auditory, followed by both visual and cenesthetic hallucinations, and the data found that tactile, gustatory, and olfactory hallucinations were less common. To retrieve an enhanced explanation, the authors sought to correctly define the term hallucination in a universal sense. Doing so, the evidence revealed correlations between cultural, physiological, and environmental factors that contribute to the development and course of delusional hallucinations present within schizophrenia spectrum. A question related to this analysis: among the different cultures studied, what deemed a person “healthy”?
DEPRESSION
1. Samuel Morgan
Beshai, S., S. Dobson, K., Adel, A., & Hanna, N. (2016). A Cross-Cultural Study of the Cognitive Model of Depression: Cognitive Experiences Converge between Egypt and Canada. PLoS ONE, 11(3).
The main purpose of this cross-cultural comparison was to assess the application of Western models of Depression within other non-Western cultures. Researchers that conducted this experiment based the concept of Depression on Beck’s cognitive model of depression. This cognitive model postulates: dysfunctional attitudes, negative core beliefs and automatic thoughts, as well as a strong correlation between depressive symptom frequency and cognitive thoughts, are present in individuals affected with depression. The sample size included 29 diagnosed depressed Egyptians and 35 diagnosed depressed Canadians. In addition to these samples, 29 non-depressed Egyptians, and 38 non-depressed Canadians were used as a control group to compare depressed individuals within their corresponding country. Researchers predicted that depressed subjects from both countries would have a higher rate of negative thoughts, dysfunctional attitudes, and fewer positive thoughts in comparison to control groups. Experimentation resulted in higher levels of negative self-thoughts within both depressed samples, and lower levels of positive thoughts. Depressed Egyptians displayed a higher rate of dysfunctional attitudes compared to depressed Canadians. After reviewing this study, the main topic of concern revolves around the different guidelines in diagnosing the individuals from each country. How were the Canadians diagnosed in comparison to the Egyptians, and why do depressed Egyptians have a higher rate of dysfunctional behaviors?
2. Jenny Grijalba
Wernicke, R. A., Pearlman, M. Y., Thorndike, F. P., & Haaga, D. A. F. (2006). Depression
proneness and reactions to a depressive stimulus. The Journal of Psychology, 140(1), 69-79. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.fiu.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.fiu.edu/docview/213831350?accountid=10901
This study examines the response of people who are vulnerable to depression when exposed to a depressive stimulus. The hypothesis focused on two possible reactions. One was that persons who are prone to depression would reject a depressive stimulus due to the belief that it may induce a negative mood or a depressive episode. The other was that depression-vulnerable individuals may respond with less rejection because of greater empathy, as they have previously experienced depression. Researchers studied smokers who have no history of depression and smokers who have previously suffered from depression but were not at that time depressed. Participants were to listen to scripted audiotapes presenting depressive and nondepressive stimuli. They were to imagine that the person in the tapes was a recently met acquaintance responding to them asking how they have been feeling as of late. Immediately following, participants completed a series of questionnaires regarding the subject. Results evidenced that participants rejected the depression stimulus more times than the nondepressive stimulus. There were no significant differences in the response of those who had a history of depression and those who did not. Perhaps if the person on the tapes was a closer friend or family member, participants would be less likely to reject a depressive episode?
3. Priscilla Cordoba
Kane, P., & Garber, J. (2004). The Relations among Depression in Fathers, Children’s
Psychopathology, and Father-Child Conflict: A Meta-Analysis. Clinical Psychology Review 24 (2004) 339-360. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Judy_Garber/publication/8463105_The_relations_among_depression_in_fathers_children’s_psychopathology_and_fatherchild_conflict_A_meta-analysis/links/0deec531fd7b1732f7000000.pdf
The focal point of this investigation is to conclude that maladaptive behavior in offspring is linked to psychopathological attributes derived from not only mothers, but fathers as well. Men from different ethnic, cultural and socioeconomic groups younger than 45 years of age show higher rates in depression than men older than 45 and thus,  it is common that men who partake in the group with greater risk have children. Males undergo significant amounts of depression during the child-rearing years and the interaction of these depressed beings may negatively affect the wellbeing of the children. With scientific findings from 32 studies previously conducted between the years 1984 to 2002 and a coding scheme used to extract relevant data, such as sample characteristics, study descriptors, depression measurements, and information of dependent variables, the variables of interest were examined: child-internalizing and externalizing symptoms and father-child conflict. With regard to child-internalization, it was found that the level of severity in the diagnoses of depression is relative to deficiencies in paternal functioning.  Marital discord and child physical abuse accounts for the external factors and although mother-child conflict is more frequent, father-child conflict results to be more harmful and such interactions have a great emotional impact on the child’s behavior. Could it be that a father figure plays a more influential role in a child’s life than his/her mother?