The person-centred model of therapy was developed by Carl Rogers (1902-1987). Rogers was the fourth of six children, raised by devout Christian parents who worked hard to prevent society from corrupting their children. Rogers was a sickly and lonely child who was perceived as oversensitive.
When Rogers was a teenager, his parents moved their family to a farm. Rogers developed an interest in the science of agriculture and decided to study in order to pursue a career in farming. His college days (1920-1924) afforded Rogers the opportunity to make friends. His college Professor, George Humphries, encouraged his students to think for themselves; this was very liberating for Rogers. Rogers decided he wanted to become a Christian Minister and changed his studies from agriculture to history.
In 1924, Rogers spent 6 months at a Student Christian Federation Conference in Peking. Here, Rogers developed his intellectual, spiritual and emotional independence. Group life showed Rogers how people learn to value individual differences and receive acceptance whilst maintaining their own authenticity. This period seems to have been the beginning of Rogers’ Core Conditions.
Upon returning home, Rogers enrolled on an introduction to psychology course. He also continued in his studies of religion, however, he became increasingly frustrated as he realised he did not want to impose his opinions on others. Rogers was studying Psychology under Leta Hollingsworth; someone Rogers considered a warm human being and competent research worker. He also met a former student of John Dewey and learned about Dewey’s views on progressive education. These experiences led Rogers to embark fully on a career as a clinical psychologist.
Initially, Rogers drew from both behaviourism and psychoanalysis, but was not fully comfortable with either. Rogers’ first post was at the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in Rochester, New York. Rogers began to discover that the theories he had thus far learned did not stand up to the test of reality. Here, Rogers worked alongside, and was influenced by, Jessie Taft, a student of Otto Rank. He integrated perspectives and ideas of Rank, Dewey and Kirkpatrick. And, based on what he experienced every day in his consulting room, Rogers began to believe that individuals could be self-directing.
In 1939, Rogers was offered a Professorship in Psychology at Ohio State University. In December 1940, he presented his ideas in a lecture, which he later came to consider as the Birthday of Client Centred Therapy. In 1942, he published his book 'Counselling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice’.
In 1951, he published 'Client-Centred Therapy' which explores the application of the approach to therapy, group-work, leadership and administrative roles, teaching and training. 1957 saw Rogers take a post at the University of Wisconsin as Professor of Psychology and Psychiatry.
The national fame of his fifth book 'On Becoming a Person' (1961) gave Rogers the confidence to leave academia. His next move was to the Western Behavioural Sciences Institute in California. This was a non-profit making organisation which carried out humanistically orientated research into inter-personal relations.
He became greatly involved in the encounter group movement, learning to trust the wisdom of the small group in the same way that he had trusted individuals in one-to-one counselling. He became increasingly interested in other applications of the approach, including education. Rogers left to set up the Center for Studies of the Person, which still exists and where he remained a Resident Fellow until his death. In his 70s and 80s he travelled the world taking the approach to places of conflict such as Northern Ireland, South Africa, Poland and Russia.
Since Rogers’ death in 1987, others have continued to influence the development of person-centred counselling. Natalie Rogers, Eugene Gendlin, Leslie Greenberg, Robert Elliott, Gary Prouty, Dave Mearns and Brian Thorne, to name a few. All these people have developed approaches that are closely related to the conceptions of the person-centred approach.
Explain the philosophical basis of the chosen model (300w) 250
The basic hypothesis of the person-centred approach is that every individual has within them a vast capacity for self-healing, given the right atmosphere. Carl Rogers used the analogy of sprouting potatoes to illustrate this. He remembered that when he was a boy, the family’s winter store of potatoes was kept in a bin, in a basement, several feet beneath a small window. Rogers observed that even though the conditions were unfavourable for growth, pale, spindly sprouts would emerge from the potatoes and grow 2 or 3 feet in length as they reached for the light at the distant window. These sprouts would never become plants and never reach their full potential, and Rogers likened this to the actualising tendency he had been describing. These sprouts were striving to become, even under the most adverse circumstances. Rogers said the sprouts reminded him of clients whose lives had been terribly warped, yet the directional tendency in them can be trusted. He said that the clue to understanding their behaviour is that they are striving in the only ways perceivable to them, they are moving towards growth and towards becoming.
In the person-centred approach, there are 3 core conditions; empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard. The core conditions are attitudes that the Counsellor displays to convey acceptance of the client and that they value them as a human being. If these 3 core conditions are present, the process of therapeutic movement will almost inevitably occur. This process can be trusted.
Explain the key concepts, principles of the chosen model (400w) (595)
“Carl Rogers (a major contributor of the client-centred approach) emphasized the humanistic perspective as well as ensuring therapeutic relationships with clients promote self-esteem, authenticity and actualisation in their life, and help them to use their strengths” (Seligman, 2006).
To assist this process, Rogers outlined key concepts and principles of the person-centred approach.
The first three concepts are also the core conditions; empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard.
Empathy is seeing the world through someone else’s eyes. No one has more knowledge of what is going on for them than the client. Empathy is trying to move around in their world so you get an idea of what it feels like to be them.
Being congruent is about being genuine. It’s being aware of what you are feeling inside and communicating this to the client. Nothing is hidden. This allows the client to build a trusting relationship with the counsellor. Also, congruence can help defeat negative attitudes or conditions of worth. The counsellor’s warm and genuine approach allows the client to feel valued which, in turn, builds self-esteem and trust in their own judgement.
Unconditional positive regard is the acceptance and support of a person, regardless of what they say or do. UPR allows the client to open up and talk about their problems without fear of being judged or criticised.
Carl Rogers believed that all humans have within them the ability to self-actualise. He termed the process the ‘actualising tendency’. This is the inherent movement towards being the person we were born to be, rather than the person others would like us to be. It’s the pull towards fulfilling one’s potential and finding wholeness.
The organismic valuing process is the uniqueness that is present within us since birth. &
nbsp;If we can hear it, and are able to listen, it can guide us to what we need in order to live a fulfilling life. It is unchanging. However, the organismic self can be distorted by conditions of worth, thereby making its messages harder to hear.
A person’s self-concept is who they believe they are, based on the messages they receive from others. This begins to develop in infancy and builds throughout life. The self-concept can be either positive or negative, depending on how similar it is to the organismic self.
Conditions of worth are beliefs a person takes on as their own, due to having to adopt certain behaviours to meet the approval of others. Conditions of worth can cause someone to live a completely different life to the one they would have lived, had they been able to hear and/or respond to their organismic self.
The locus of evaluation can be internal or external; the internal locus of evaluation means a person is guided by their own instincts (they use their organismic valuing process), whereas an external locus of evaluation means that a person seeks, and is guided more, by the opinions of others (conditions of worth). Through the process of therapy, a person can increase their ability to operate from an internal locus of evaluation.
Carl Rogers introduced the term ‘fully functioning person’ to mean a person who is living life to the full. According to Rogers, this is a process rather than a state of being. The process is characterised by an increasing trust in the organismic self, living fully in each moment and increasing openness to experience.
Rogers listed 6 ‘necessary and sufficient conditions’ that should be present during therapy. He said that if all these conditions exist and continue over a period of time, then positive therapeutic movement will take place.
The final principle is the seven-stage process. Rogers thought that there were seven stages clients went through during therapy. This is a tool used to gauge how a client is progressing.
Explain how the chosen model would inform the practice of a qualified trained counsellor (300w) 295
Knowledge of the theory of Person Centred Counselling informs a counsellor’s practice in several ways. Rogers said that if the necessary and sufficient conditions (two persons in psychological contact; one person (client) is in a state of incongruence, being vulnerable or anxious; the second person (therapist) is congruent or integrated in the relationship; and the core conditions outlined at 1.2) are in place, then positive therapeutic movement will take place. This allows the Counsellor to trust in the process.
The seven-stage process continuum can illuminate what is happening for the client. Rogers believed that clients progress through seven stages in therapy. This progress can be erratic but clients generally do move step by step through the seven-stage process. This is a useful tool to track client progress and highlight to the counsellor whether the client is, indeed, moving forward or seems to be stuck.
Knowledge of the principle of the organismic self provides hope and acceptance for the client. The organismic self can be relied upon; thus, the Counsellor can trust in the client’s organismic self. The counsellor doesn’t need to have the answers; they can trust that the client ultimately knows what is right for them.
The locus of evaluation is another method of tracking a client’s progress. By listening to the language the client is using, the counsellor can discern how the client is progressing in finding their balance on the scale of internal or external locus of evaluation.
Awareness of conditions of worth can illuminate the root of a problem and assists the counsellor in maintaining unconditional positive regard.
The counsellor’s own self concept is important in order that they can provide a congruent and empathic therapeutic environment, demonstrate unconditional positive regard and allow the client to lead the process.
“To be with another in this way means that for the time being, you lay aside your own views and values in order to enter another’s world without prejudice. In some sense it means that you lay aside your self; this can only be done by persons who are secure enough in themselves that they know they will not get lost in what may turn out to be the strange or bizarre world of the other, and that they can comfortably return to their own world when they wish.” (Rogers 1980, p143)
Explain how the chosen model influences the understanding of the development of the concept of self (300w) 280
The foundation of the person-centred approach is the idea that every individual has within them a vast capacity for self-healing, given the right atmosphere. The individual knows intrinsically what is right for them and this knowledge can be trusted. Every organism has a self-actualising tendency to move towards its full potential.
The self-concept develops as a result of childhood experiences and the opinions of others (conditions of worth) and can be defined as the consistent characteristics and beliefs an individual identifies as being unique to them. The closer our self-concept and ideal self (organismic self) are, the more congruent an individual is and the higher their sense of self-worth. Learning about the organismic self can give a person the opportunity to reflect on whether the life path they have taken feels inherently theirs or has perhaps been pressed upon them by the influences of others. Incongruence is experienced when the distance between the organismic self and the perceived self is too great. This is as a result of living life from an external locus of evaluation and can lead to feelings of stress, anxiety, depression and frustration.
The aim of person centred counselling is to enable the client to move further away from an external locus of evaluation and towards an internal locus of evaluation. This assists the client to trust in the organismic self. The client moves through the seven-stage process, towards becoming a fully functioning person; someone who has a self-image that is congruent with reality, is open to new experiences, able to freely share feelings and is autonomous.
McLeod 2013, p172 illustrates the idea of the self-concept thus, "The idea of the self-concept has a central place in person-centred theory. The self-concept of the person is understood as those attributes or areas of experiencing about which the person can say 'I am…..' For example ……. 'I am strong, I can be angry, I sometimes feel vulnerable.' "
Explain why it is important to have an understanding of a therapeutic model before using its methods and techniques (300w) 224
Understanding a therapeutic model before using its methods and techniques is the foundation of effective counselling and is important on many levels. Practicing as a counsellor while not fully understanding the techniques and processes is unethical, according to the BACP ethical framework, which counsellors must adhere to. It also opens up the possibility that the Counsellor would not be able to identify what may be happening for the client and prevent them identifying and recognising when and why things aren’t progressing satisfactorily.
A sound understanding of the model gives the Counsellor guidelines by which to work and assists them to evaluate their own professional development. It assists Counsellors to focus on relevant information and helps them to be aware of what they should look out for. It also supports the Counsellor to assist the client to modify their behaviour, emotional functioning, interpersonal relationships and cognitions.
Understanding the model is advantageous to the counsellor as it enables them to trust in the process and believe th
at the client will benefit from it.
A lack of knowledge of the model can, at best, cause the client to have an unproductive, unhelpful experience. At worst, it can cause harm, damage and distress to a client. People who enter into a therapeutic relationship with a counsellor are likely to be vulnerable and malpractice could be harmful to them.
2.1 Explain the key features of two other therapeutic models (500w) 632
Psychodynamic Model
Between the 1890s and 1930s, Sigmund Freud developed theories which form the basis of the psychodynamic approach to psychology. A key feature of this model is that the subconscious mind is made up of the id, ego and superego. The id is all about meeting basic needs, for example, a baby crying until it is fed. The ego deals with reality, such as someone feeling angry and wanting to lash out. But, knowing this could land them in trouble, they decide to walk away. The superego is about adding morals, for example, someone takes two items to the check-out but is only charged for one. They could get away with it, but decide to point out the mistake to the cashier. The id and the superego (unconscious mind) are in conflict with the ego (conscious mind). This creates anxiety and the ego uses defence mechanisms (such as displacement) to deal with this. “Means of avoiding pain are created: ways of seeing, thinking, feeling and behaving can all serve this purpose. These are the ‘mechanisms’ of defence. Much of this activity takes place out of awareness.” (Leiper and Maltby 2004 p.13)
Another key feature of the psychodynamic model is the belief that the feelings and behaviours of adults have their roots in childhood experiences. Freud said that children develop through a series of five fixed stages, known as the psychosexual stages. He believed that each stage is associated with a conflict which must be resolved to allow successful advancement to the next stage, otherwise, fixation can occur.
Freud believed there are three distinct parts to the human mind; the conscious, the subconscious and the unconscious. The conscious mind is where most people function from on a day to day basis. The subconscious (or preconscious) mind is accessible, but not quite conscious, and the unconscious mind stores all memories and experiences and is inaccessible for examination. Psychodynamic therapists believe information held in the preconscious mind can be obtained from dreams, irrational behaviour and what a patient says. Psychodynamic theory also uses free association. This is a practice whereby a client is asked to freely share thoughts, words and anything at all that comes into their mind, regardless of coherence or appropriateness.
Transference is a phenomenon where the person in therapy redirects their feelings about another person onto the therapist. Countertransference occurs when the therapist does the same to the client, and can often be a reaction to transference.
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is an umbrella term for therapies with similarities such as, Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) and Cognitive Therapy (CT). REBT is one of the first forms of CBT and was created in the mid 1950s by Dr Albert Ellis. REBT uses the ABC model of psychological disturbance and change, where A is the activating event (something happens), B is the belief a person has about the activating event, C is the consequence (the emotional reaction to the belief), D is disputation (identify reasons why the irrational beliefs are untrue) and E is the new effect (a more rational reaction).
Other people who have influenced the development of CBT include Pavlov (Classical Conditioning), Skinner (Operant Conditioning), Thorndike (Law of Effect) and Watson (expanded on Classical Conditioning).
The CBT model can be thought of as follows; what we think affects how we act and feel; what we do affects how we think and feel and what we feel affects what we think and do. In effect, this can be thought of as a triangle representing our thoughts, feelings and behaviour. CBT therapists work on the basis that personality is acquired entirely through learning and, therefore, is a collection of responses that have rewarded us in the past. Thus, new responses can be learned through reward, and the extinction of unwanted behaviour can be achieved by ignoring it. The CBT model states that anything learned can be unlearned and the client is taught to challenge their irrational beliefs. CBT Counsellors also set between-session ‘homework’ tasks for their clients.
2.2 Compare and contrast these models with the main model chosen (500w) 406
When comparing and contrasting these three approaches, I found the following similarities between them all. Each has its own set of ethics, boundaries and professional standards, and, at the heart of each of them, is the desire to help people to improve their well-being.
When comparing the Person-Centred model and the Psychodynamic model, I could see some similarities in the concepts. The self-concept and the superego both refer to external morals, rules and values, imposed on the individual, that have been internalised. The organismic self and the id both represent the part that is often ignored. When contrasting both of these approaches, I found that Psychodynamic therapists assume the role of ‘expert’, whereas, in person centred therapy the relationship is an equal one. Thus, the Psychodynamic approach is directed by the therapist and Person Centred is non-directed. Also, the Psychodynamic model focuses on the past in order to gain insight, whereas in Person Centred therapy the aim is self-actualisation, therefore, the client makes the decision about where to focus. Gray 2014, p.1 describes this contrast “….psychodynamics are concerned with mental processes and the laws that govern mental action, whereas person-centred concepts are concerned with a particular way of being with people, not with trying to understand the unconscious reasons for the way they think or feel as they do.”
When examining the differences between the Psychodynamic approach and CBT, I found that the Psychodynamic approach encourages focusing on the past to try to uncover significant events. CBT, however, focuses in the here and now and has set goals. The theory of the Psychodynamic approach, that people are driven by unconscious urges, contrasts with the CBT belief that our behaviour is a learned response. The similarities I observed between these two models are that they are both directed by the therapist and the therapist assumes the role of ‘expert’.
I found it somewhat challenging to find many similarities between the Person-Centred model and CBT. Both appear to apply the core conditions (empathy, unconditional positive regard and congruence). However, in CBT this is mainly to establish rapport with the client, early on in the therapeutic relationship. The differences between these two approaches are that the Person-Centred model is non-directive, as opposed to the directive approach taken by the therapist in CBT, in order to teach the client new skills. Also, CBT sessions tend to be of a set number, whereas in Person-C therapy, the number of sessions can be left open. There are no new skills to learn in PC therapy and aren't given exercises to complete between sessions. Conversely, in CBT, clients are given ‘homework’ to do without the therapist present.