Essay: Matthew Fontaine Maury

Introduction
Matthew Fontaine Maury was born on January 14th 1806 outside Fredericksburg Virginia but was raised in Tennessee. He followed in his brothers footsteps and joined the U.S Navy in 1825. He obtained this occupation until 1839 when in this year he was involved in accident that deemed him unable to serve in that squadron. Though his title of naval officer remained where he served in Washington, focusing on the writing of topics that would aid sea goers of that era and off the future. His naval career prospered until 1866 when he began writing textbooks for the subject of Geography in schools. Along with his career in scientific writing he was a professor at the Virginia Military Institute where he practiced physics until his death in 1834. He acquired the occupations of historian, oceanographer, educator, meteorologist , author, and astronomer and due to his extensive range of works contributing to the fields mentioned above, he received nicknames such as Pathfinder of the Seas and Father of Modern Oceanography and Naval Meteorology and Scientist of the Seas (Rudd, 2010). His expertise lied within charting the unexplored parts of the oceans and maritime territory of the open seas and coastlines and shortening navigation routes at sea. He famously charted wind and ocean currents from obtaining data from mariners around the world.
Personal or scientific spaces for geographers are hubs where their scientific knowledge arose and where their theories developed. These spaces drive human thought and are used to create collective and personal identifies (Cloke, Johnston, 2005). Notable spaces for Maury include the steam corvette, the RMS Challenger of 1858 amongst other voyages. Institutional spaces such as the Virginia Military Institute, as well as geographical regions in which he studied and provided great understanding off (Wexler, Rubin, Caskey 2013).
Placing Matthew Fontaine Maury: The Beginning of His Scientific Career
Maury was a significant figure in the 19th century in the subjects of oceanography and meteorology. With having a scientific background in the writing of physical geography textbooks and the navigation of routes at sea, he made noteworthy contributions to exploring expeditions carried out by the U.S Navy. His naval role made him favourable for such voyages. Although a prominent figure in oceanography he was recruited as an astronomer and hydrographer for a navy exploring expedition in 1837 by Commodore Catesby Jones. The reason for this recruitment was because he had successfully begun his scientific career, Maury had published two articles and a navigation textbook. At the time of when he was appointed for this role he was only a junior lieutenant but many knew of his capabilities. With this under his belt he was selected as head of the National Observatory of Virginia and he held this post for  17 years. Although an appreciated scientist of this era he was criticised in this role and tension arose between him and other scientists in this field for resources. This disapproval was justified because although Maury ran one of the most prestigious observatories in the world, during his time here he published less than 20 papers (Scribner, 2008). Maury regarded physical geography as a better discipline than astronomy and it was his love for the ocean that encouraged him to pursue sea exploration. In a published quote he says “Astronomy ignores the existence of man; physical  geography confesses that existence is based on the Biblical doctrine ‘ that the earth was made for man.” (Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888) In 1842 he was appointed as superintendant of the Navy’s Depot of Charts and Instruments and the US Naval Observatory in Washington (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2010). It was Maurys international recognition as well as his scholarly reputation that made him favourable for this role according to the article Matthew Fontaine Maury by Trevor Major 2010. It has been published in literature that Maurys first five pieces of writing on naval reform and other subjects of natural interest also made him admirable for this position. These papers were regarded as remarkable and were universally acknowledged. In a quote by Senator Bell in 1842 he states that ” No man could have been found in the country better fitted  for this difficult duty.” (Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888) It was in this depot that he made notable contributions to the navy and the world through the study of navigation charts. This space allowed him to create the first systematic study of the oceans currents and winds from the collection of data retrieved by sailors from around the world upon request (Ocean Motion no date). This was considered the greatest task of his career as he achieved worldwide credit for his Wind and Ocean Charts of 1847. His accomplishment of establishing safe and quicker sailing routes around the globe earned him one of his monikers ‘Pathfinder of the Seas’ (Major 2010). The spaces of vessels allowed Maury to make significant contributions to science. He was first assigned as a midshipman aboard the frigate USS Brandywine in 1825. It was here that he began to study of the sea and navigation (Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888).
The Challenger and Other Notable Voyages
After the USS Brandywine Maury undertook many other voyages to continue his purpose of sea exploration and navigation. In 1826 aboard the USS Vincennes, Maurys scientific expertise were recognised and he became a favourite with the Captain. The space in which Maury occupied on this ship was advantageous for him to development his scientific knowledge. He made significant progress here and had created Lunar Tables which were published soon after (Fontaine Maury Corbin 1888). The next voyage he embarked on was to the Pacific aboard the Sloop-of-war Falmouth. Unlike the USS Brandywine Maury had his own cabin where he could conduct his own scientific enquiry. The voyage of Falmouth was of particular significance in Maurys scientific career as it was on this voyage he came up with the idea of his very famous Wind and Current Charts. His scientific research and accomplishments were kick started upon leaving New York to head to Cape Horn, where he studied the ‘low barometer’ phenomenon. His career of writing scientific papers had begun after his first paper was published on this particular topic (Fontaine Maury Corbin 1888). The contributions he had made so far to the field of oceanography particularly in the subject of sea navigation were even more exceptional due to his rank in the navy. ‘ It was considered a daring step on the part of an officer of a rank no higher than that of a midshipman to publish a work on navigation; but the book, like its author had made its way in spite of all obstacles'(Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888). This accomplishment was noticed by the highest nautical authorities in England and his work became the textbook of the United States Navy. After disembarking from the Falmouth Maury had plans to expand his scientific career. In a letter to his brother  that was written in 1835, Maury was very aware of his potential to make significant contributions to oceanography. He states ‘You must bear in mind that this is the first nautical work of science that has ever come from the pen of a naval officer’ (Fontaine Maury Corbin 1888). After the Falmouth another significant voyage that contributed to Maurys work was the USS Dolphin that sailed until 1834 in which Maury was the first lieutenant on. Commanded by Maury, this voyage was for a scientific purpose to measure ocean depth. As early as 1847 Maury was contributing to oceanography with the development of his Wind and Ocean charts beginning with a strip of water from Newfoundland to Ireland. Maury also carried out these studies for navigational and commercial benefits by studying the seafloor underneath major shipping routes. Maury also had a significant role in the North Pacific Exploring Expedition that sailed the North Pacific Ocean, China seas and parts of the Behring Straits from 1853 to 1856. Its purpose was not only naval or commercial but also scientific in terms of claiming parts of the ocean.  Maurys expertise in the field of oceanography were recognised and he was selected to promote the hydrographical goals of the expedition. He also played a key role in collecting ocean floor deposits to fulfil the aim of the deep sea investigation both physical and biological (Rozwadowski 2005).
Maurys most notable voyage was the HMS Challenger that sailed from 1872-1876 across the southern hemisphere. It was the first voyage to be funded for a specific scientific purpose. This purpose was to examine the deep seabed and ‘answer comprehensive questions about the ocean environment’ (Aquarium, no date) It was Maurys contributions to the data collection of ocean currents and meteorological readings that helped develop the science of oceanography (Ocean Motion no date).  The steam corvette of the HMS Challenger was a scientific space in which Maury could enhance his scientific knowledge and contribute further to the field of oceanography. It was an intellectual and social space for scientific enquiry and a hybrid space containing a mobile laboratory and field laboratory in which Maury could carry out his work. Although Maury was a recognised man of science, on the HMS Challenger he was not one of the six scientists onboard but one of the 20 naval officers (Finnegan 2015).
In The Ship as Laboratory: Making Space for Field Science at Sea by Antony Adler 2013 states it was the spaces of the HMS Challenger that launched an environment for Maury that gave ‘legitimacy to the science of oceanography’  Adler also published a quote by Maury regarding the importance of vessel spaces and his Wind and Ocean Observation Charts. ‘ Every ship that navigates the high seas, with these charts and blank logs on board, may henceforth be regarded as a floating observatory, a temple of science’
His Notable Geographical works and Further Scientific Contributions
Maury has published a range of literature in the fields of physical geography, oceanography and meteorology.  He was able to do so because of the data he had collected in his scientific spaces of the voyages, the national observatory as well as data collected from mariners around the world.  Among Maurys work were charts that benefited those out at sea. One of the first charts to be published was his Whaling Charts in 1846. These contained information on the whereabouts of sperm whales. In literature compiled by his daughter the value of such charts were noted. They showed mariners shorter routes across the sea, decreased danger while sailing by showing prevailing winds and ocean currents and linked many parts of the world. In a letter by the Secretary of the Navy states stated that the information within the charts is of great value that has added honour to this country, an opinion felt throughout the Government of this time (Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888). To get an extent of the contributions of these charts made ‘350 whaling vessels alone in New Bedford benefited from these charts’ (Jahns, 1961). In 1847 Maury published his Wind and Current Charts. The charts did not only add significance to the science of oceanography but they also were important to empirical science. This was the idea of claiming the ocean through science which Maury did successfully (Scribner, 2008). Maury expanded the significance of these charts by accompanying them with an enlarged edition of Sailing Directions. His most notable piece of literature The Physical Geography of the sea was published in 1855. It was considered the first modern textbook of oceanography and earned Maury the title of Father of Oceanography (Major, 2010). Within this book was the first bathymetric chart ever published. It was off great significance because it determined  the location for the transatlantic cable between Ireland and Newfoundland. On this operation Maury imputed a lot of work and was described as the brains behind it (Cohen, 2005). An example of Maurys input into this project was his depiction of the plateau under the see where the cable would lie. It became the most famous and widely produced image on this subject. Maurys work in the attempt to lay the cable in 1857 and 1858 was greatly appreciated however the project received some criticism and failed the following month. Maurys work on the cable was therefore not acknowledged in a banquet of 1866. Among other reasons he wasn’t acknowledged at this time was because shareholders, journals and newspapers no longer devoted time on the research of the seafloor or promoted the idea of the cable (Rozwadowski 2005). This textbook was also subjected to criticism. It was described as being written to hastily and having a lot of errors (Jahns, 1961). By the eighth edition there was still no evidence of appreciable modifications. Maury had a habit off ignoring criticism and constantly defended his theories even if they weren’t accepted. Sir Henry Holland criticised this book stating that ‘Maury theorises to largely and hazardously’ Maurys confusing style of writing is not structured enough for the reader with facts not separated from theories and the known not separated from the unknown (Fontaine Maury, 1861). Despite the criticism, Maurys work on sea observation was so greatly appreciated by all nations that it was suggested to expand his meteorological work inland. In 1861 he published his book Physical Geography of the Sea and it’s Meteorology. This book contributed to the field of meteorology as well as to agriculture and was commended in comments by Humboldt and Quetelet in the Edinburgh review. They both stated;  “One of the most charming and instructive books in the English language,” (Fontaine Maury Corbin, 1888). Back in 1853 Maurys vast scientific knowledge inspired the established of the International Maritime Meteorological Conference in Brussels in which he successfully brought together 10 major maritime powers (Munday, 1983). Within just a few years the aim of the conference was met and Maury was achieving international cooperation of the collection of oceanographic observations (Williams, 1983). With all this under his belt it was ‘Maury who created the science of physical geography’ (Fontaine Maury Corbin 1888).
Maurys work can be addressed in a theoretical and historical context as well as personal and institutional.  In terms of personal and historical, there is a religious undertone to his theories. There is a question of whether Maury used the Bible as a guide to exploring the oceans ever since his daughter read to him Pslam 8:8. It goes as follows; “whatsoever walkth path of the sea” to which Maury replied “the paths of the sea, if God says path of the sea, they are there and I will find them’  The idea of Maury using the Bible amongst his research was reinforced by a paper published in 1929 by the US Naval Institute revealing that biblical quotes were carved into monuments of Maury in Virginia (Rudd, 2010). Maury has quoted the use of The Bible in scientific discovery and how the two are linked. In the following quote he reinstates this. “The Bible is true and science is true. The agents in the physical economy of our planet are ministers of Him who made both it and the Bible.” (Fontaine Maury Corbin 1888). One of Maurys theories that was looked at before him was in relation to the Gulf Stream.  Benjamin Franklin was the first to show interest in the Gulf Stream with regards to ship navigation and published the first chart of it in 1769. The purpose of it was to shorten crossings from England to Rhode island, similar aims of Maury to shorten the travel time of major shipping routes (Rudd, 2010). Maury originally thought the currents of the Gulf Stream flowed eastward and his theory of where it originated by thermohaline circulation was rejected by his opponent Sir John Herschel. Hershel’s theory that the current flows from the east by westerly trade winds is widely accepted (Fontaine Maury 1861). When Maury is explaining his ideas to all audiences he uses the analogy of astronomy. In the reference to the sea he says the depths equally deserve the reflection and scrutiny of the heavens and that if humans could reach and research the sky so could they with the sea bed. Other scientists of this time that used this analogy were William B. Carpenter who used eclipse expeditions to get the government onboard with scientific voyages (Rozwadowski 2005). Before Maury began ocean exploration there was a historical foundation of knowledge provided by sea goers before his time. It was in the 1700’s that explorers wanted faster routes for trade and  it was also in this era that the Centre for the Learning of Marine Sciences was established by Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal (Dive Discover, 2005). In terms of Maurys work in an institutional context; as mentioned the National Observatory influenced his discoveries greatly as it was here he found shipping logs that enabled him to create his Wind and Current Charts (Scribner, 2008). Maurys theories on the movement of water and wind influenced others particularly William Ferrel, who was forced to revise his own theories because of widespread popularity of Maurys (Scribner, 2008) Maury worked in a time just after the Age of Discovery. This was a period of world exploration by carrying out expeditions across the sea. Geography during the 19th Century was an established disciple and the subjects it included were studied by Alexander Von Humboldt at this time. In his book Cosmos: a sketch of a physical description of the Universe 1865 he regarded geography as being systematic and it was him who developed theories of physical geography. Carl Ritter was influenced by Humboldt and further developed geography from systematic to regional and that it has the right to be considered a science (Rana, 2008). Ritter and Humboldt were the founders of modern geography and established a bed of geographical thought in which people like Maury could further develop.
Conclusion and Further Recognition for His Work
It is evident that Maury made significant contributions to the field of oceanography gaining the titles of Father of Oceanography and Pathfinder of the Seas. His contributions were less significant to astronomy but never the less his scientific and naval contributions were acknowledged. These contributions have been remembered in many ways from the naming of buildings and ships after him, and the numerous statues of him. Examples of these include the Matthew Fontaine Maury Monument in Richmond Virginia and Maury Hall as part of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science. Maury also obtained 13 silver medals of Pope Pius IX for his weather reporting system and the Monetary Award in 1866 for his contributions to navigation at sea (Cohen, 2005). Maury received recognition from the likes of Humboldt for his achievements both scientific and empirical. His work on physical geography was so significant that it was printed numerous times and translated into 6 languages of Europe. Maurys legacy and contributions live on through the American Association for the Advancement of Science in which he helped form by attending the first meeting in 1848, where he promoted his successful Wind and Current charts (Scribner 2008). He was an exceptional oceanographer who made vast contributions to geographical thought from the spaces of ships, observatories and the Naval Institute of Virginia.