Little remains known about the Dacians, the original inhabitants of the region in Southeastern Europe stretching from the Carpathian mountains to the Danube. Because of the lack of any written Dacian records, historians rely on the accounts of Greek and Latin contemporary figures, such as Ovid and Herodotus, and on the cultural artefacts they left behind. The Dacians, often referred to as the forefathers of present-day Romanians, should also be credited, at least partially, for the shaping of a national Romanian identity, and sadly, for the development of a maddening frenzy of conspiracy theories and a wave of politically driven nationalism known as Dacomania. The far fetched theories of these quack historians include the apparent conquests of Japan, Iraq, India, and Egypt by the Dacians, and the development of Latin under the strong influence of the Dacian language. In truth, only a few Dacian words have survived in the Romanian language, although some traditions have carried on.
I chose to study the Dacians not only because I am Romanian myself, but because of their unique characteristics as a civilization. They never migrated and managed to successfully fight off invaders for hundreds of years. Although the Dacians were not isolated culturally, and experienced cross-cultural encounters with the Scythians, Cimmerians, Alani, Celts, Germans, Goths, and others, they maintained a distinct identity as a people, the Carpatho-Danubian area being “the ideal buffer zone for western and southern European civilizations” (Grumeza 3).
The Dacians were an Indo-European people related to the Thracians, Celts, and Germans. They evolved from various ethnic groups living in the Carpatho-Danubian into tight-knit Dacian communities thanks to their similar religious rituals, especially their worship of the wolf. Many believe that these groups formed clans called the Daoii, Daii, and Dacii after the Phrygian word ‘daos,’ which means wolf. If this theory holds true, the word ‘Dacian’ should translate roughly to ‘wolf people.’
Nevertheless, a unified Dacia did not exist until sometime in the early 2nd century B.C.E, when the scattered tribes came together to fight off the Celts. An indication that the Dacian tribes eventually united is their common flag—a wolf head attached to a serpent-like body, which was carried into battle by horsemen, and produced a shrill, ghostly sound when wind passed through its jaws. It was only under King Burebista(82–44 B.C.E.),however,that Dacia developed into an monarchical empire, with an organized army. After King Burebista’s death, the kingdom was divided into four parts, and re-united under King Decebalus (87–106), who found it crucial to join the tribes in order to fight off the Romans. At the time of King Burebista’s reign, the kingdom of Dacia encompassed present day Romania, Moldova, parts of the Czech Republic, Western Hungary, and Bulgaria, and was the greatest Barbarian empire in Eastern Europe.
The Dacian territories had a mix of high and low lands, which proved be very useful, as the Carpathian mountains and the elevated plateaus of Transylvania provided protection from floods and invaders. The climate of most Dacian territories, particularly Transylvania, was mild. It rained frequently and the mountains acted as a barrier against strong winds, allowing for agricultural practices to flourish. From the plains on which they farmed to the lush Transylvanian forests and rivers, the Dacians were blessed with fertile soil, game, fish, and fruits. Their diet was wholesome; they fished, hunted, and cultivated grain, and made cheese. Although the Dacians used vegetables in their cuisine, they were limited to a few dishes including millet soup and boiled buckwheat groats. Apparently, when the Roman ambassador Marcus Flavius Tiberius arrived in Dacia he was served grilled veal, roast wild pigeons, meat on a spit, honey, wine, and various fruits. Transylvania was also rich in gold, silver, and salt deposits, making the area enviable to the Romans. Although they were mostly an agrarian people, the Dacians used these salt, gold, and silver mines to their advantage in the development of a sophisticated mining industry. They also practiced apiculture, viticulture, blacksmithing, and woodworking.
The Dacians traded extensively with neighboring societies, including the Greeks and Romans, the evidence being the various foreign coins found by archeologists. Under King Decebalus, the Dacians began using a distinct currency, made of pure gold, making the coins very valuable. Commercial routes included the Salt Road, which stretched from the Transylvanian salt mines to the western Balkan peninsula, existing Roman roads, and the river networks, including smaller rivers that fed into the larger Danube, Someş, Arieş, and Criş rivers. The kingdom of Dacia was, in all respects, very prosperous.
Unfortunately, due to little to no evidence, we know virtually nothing about the Dacian language. Linguists and historians speculate that it was related to the Satem languages, but no Dacian writings exist to prove or disprove this theory. Whether writing was taboo or the Dacians simply recorded their history on perishable materials (e.x wood) is not certain. Thankfully, the Dacians left behind other cultural artifacts in the form of traditional dress, musical instruments, and other objects. Archeologists have found painted pots, decorated glassware, iron weaponry, jewelry, and woodwork chiseled with intricate designs. Most of these are artistic-utilitarian objects which serve a functional purpose. In this sense, Dacian material culture was pragmatic; art was understood as being a private enjoyment, not a exhibitionist display of power.Because of this, the Dacians built no elaborate palaces or monuments, although they certainly had the resources to do so.
The Dacians also had a very rich musical tradition. Their instruments included the panflute (nai), a kind of lute (kobza), the “mouth harp” (dramba), and a variation of the alphorn (bucium). There was also the musical influence of the Celts, who introduced the bagpipe–an instrument used in traditional Romanian music to this day. Music was often accompanied by intricately choreographed ritual dances–all of which had different themes. A popular war themed dance, for example, had very quick, complex dance steps and described the training of soldiers, who shouted and whistled as they danced, and wore bells and garlic on their ankles and knees to demonstrate the warding off of evil spirits and intimidation of the enemy. Some of these dances, such as the “Brau” and “Sarba” are still danced today in the more traditional parts of Romania.
Many of the traditional costumes are also still worn in these rural parts on special occasions. Although the kind of dress varies slightly by region, the white, tight woolen pants, large linen shirts, studded belts, vests, long, round sheepskin coats, and leather moccasins with laces wrapped around the calves are present in almost all traditional garb. Of course, this kind of clothing was worn by the Dacian commoners (comati). The nobles (tarabostes), on the other hand, wore distinct toga-like shirts and lamb fur caps, as well as a blazon, a kind of a family crest, which was pinned as jewelry. The most commonly used fibers were wool, linen, and hemp, stitched in yellow, red, and blue. Women also wore the leather moccasins worn by men, but they dressed in long, colorful flowered wrap skirts and white veils which covered their heads and shoulders, and sometimes wore jewelry made of silver, which represented purity and chastity.