Much of the 20th century was defined by communism. States were either becoming communist or states were trying to stop communism. Starting with the Russian Revolution in 1917, communist rhetoric was spread throughout the world and subsequent revolutions in China and Cuba occurred as well. These communist revolutions all have similar characteristics that defined them as communist, beyond the ideology itself. The Revolutions in Russia, China, and Cuba were all marked by two factors; a charismatic leader at the head of the revolution, and structurally, a push in industrialization or a similar change in the economy to create a strong working class. While these characteristics exist in non-communist revolutions, these two factors together are what define communist revolutions.
Before the Russian Revolution, Russia was far behind the rest of Europe in terms of industrialization. A rapid period of industrialization occurred under Tsar Nicholas II between 1890 and 1914, causing the development of major cities like Moscow and St. Petersburg (McDaniel185). Industrialization and urbanization created the emergence of the working class or proletariat, a crucial factor in Marxist revolutionary thought. The urban middle class experienced a growth in white-collar work, education, and literacy, allowing room for “new political identities among emerging social groups” (McDaniel 185). Without condensed groups of people in the urban centers of Moscow and St. Petersburg, it would have been difficult for groups to rally around new political ideas, such as the Marxist ideas that drove the Russian Revolution.
The rise of new political thinking in Russia gave way for a revolutionary leader: Vladimir Lenin. Although the initial goals of the Revolution could have succeeded without Lenin himself, the Bolsheviks never would have been able to lead the new government without him. Lenin had the ability to mobilize and unite the Bolsheviks, something the Mensheviks of the Provisional Government could not achieve because, “the Provisional Government had no significant social base, and their fundamental outlook on the revolution was inconsistent with that of the workers and peasants” (McDaniel 189). Lenin and the Bolsheviks were “willing to accommodate their policies to the impatience of the masses,” making it easier for more people to see the appeal of the Bolshevik ideology (McDaniel 189-90). By October 23, 1917, Lenin and his supporters were strong enough to call for a large-scale takeover of the Provisional Government, and officially came to power two days later (Stevens 2017). Lenin mobilized his supporters through his extensive writings that expanded upon Marxist thought. Without these new ideas and Lenin’s charismatic leadership, the October Revolution might not have happened.
About 30 years after the Russian Revolution, communist revolutionary sentiment spread to China. Before the Chinese Revolution in 1949, China was also a highly agrarian society and did not have much of an urban population like it does today. Following Mao’s ascend to power, Mao and his party set China on “the general line for the transition to socialism” (Selden 195). Although by the early 1950s, the Revolution had already occurred, this road to socialism was necessary for the revolutionary movement to remain in power and completely transform China into a communist state. Mao’s party focused on economic development, especially industrialization, as well as the transfer from private to public ownership of the means of production (Selden 195). Although a large part of the revolutionary communist movement in China took place in the countryside, industrialization and urbanization were crucial for the state to seize the means of production and have the Mao regime last as long as it did.
Like the Russian Revolution, the ideas of the Chinese Revolution would not have been possible without its leader, Mao Zedong. Mao’s leadership was extremely charismatic and created a cult of personality around him. Mao had a clear vision of what he wanted China to become post-revolution, creating Five-Year Plans, like the Soviets. The economy improved tremendously from the post-World War II period, especially with industrial output (Selden 199). He also pushed The Great Leap Forward to mobilize the countryside, which ultimately failed, but still showed Mao’s dedication and strong ideas for the Chinese state. To make up for lost revolutionary momentum from the Great Leap Forward, Mao pushed the Cultural Revolution in 1966, to further build up socialism. The Cultural Revolution was not much of a success either, but Mao’s cult of personality reached its peak during this period, reinforcing the communist ideas he preached (Selden 200). Although China has remained somewhat of a communist state in the post-Mao era, completely communist efforts slowed down after his death in 1976. Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, opened China back up to the world economy, allowing small amounts of capitalism (Selden 200). China remained a communist state politically, but the economic sector of communism under Mao can never return.
A few years after the Chinese Revolution, Cuba experienced a communist revolution of its own. The Cuban revolution was not as focused on industrialization as the Russian and Chinese revolutions but the creation of a middle and working class emerged in pre-revolutionary Cuba, signaling some signs of industrialization and expansion of the economy. By the 1950s, Cuba was still heavily reliant on sugar for its economy. Corruption in the sugar industry only further proved the need for a middle and working class as wealth inequalities would only grow stronger under Batista. Industrialization was not necessarily a cause or effect of the revolution but something needed to create the working class that would lead the revolution in the cities.
A more obvious factor of the Cuban Revolution was the leader of the 26th of July Movement, Fidel Castro. Much of the communist ideology of the Revolution was centered around Castro and his ideas for Cuba’s future. His followers, known as fidelistas, were extremely loyal and created a cult of personality around him, similar to Mao (Leonard 206). Castro took advantage of his power and influence and made decisions in the revolutionary movement by himself, without consulting the provisional government, so he “personally, became the focal point of the revolution” (Leonard 208). Castro was appealing to the lower classes and began instituting reforms without much of a fight, further maximizing his power. He focused on employment, healthcare, and education, which he thought “elections would only interfere with these programs,” further establishing his power as a dictator (Leonard 208).
Communist revolutions were some of the major events of the 20th century, creating a whole new set of ideology and method of governing. Revolutions in Russia, China, and Cuba were some of the most influential revolutions, causing large amounts of international attention. Through comparing these three cases, communist revolutions share two common factors. First, they share an increase in industrialization or a similar form of economic advancement to make way for the working class, and second, they feature a charismatic leader such as Lenin, Mao, or Castro. Although all revolutions are unique to their own events, these two factors are shared across communist revolutions, making them stand out from other types of revolutions, like liberal revolutions in France or America. Communist revolutions changed these societies in terms of politics and ideology. Without economic changes or charismatic leaders, this change would not be as effective.