Introduction
Problem of Practice
The purpose of this literature review is to provide an understanding of the current literature that is available concerning the crucial aspects of early adolescent girl’s leadership development programs. This review seeks to understand how programs can be created to prevent negative behavior and positive youth development rather than seeking to help youth after problem behavior has occurred.
Research Question
1. What constitutes an impactful leadership development program for girls that is culturally inclusive and community based?
2. What impact does an impactful leadership development program have on early adolescent girls?
Summary of Themes
The primary themes presented in this literature review are self-esteem development, reflection, mentorship, program structure and place-based education. These themes directly relate to the problem of practice and research question as they identify crucial aspects of a girl’s leadership development program.
Literature Review
Self-Esteem Development
As young girls transition into the earliest stages of adolescent development they are often faced with the challenge of a loss of sense of self, loss of curiosity and a drop in their IQ scores
(Pipher, 1994). These young adolescent girls have a challenging time continuing on with their interests or hobbies from their childhood. They are at the point in development that they begin to face emotional, mental and physical changes that they must learn how to navigate. In order to properly, and safely process and engage these changes, adolescent girls need programs that encompass what they are experiencing while developing their skills, interests and potential through opportunity. (Pipher, 1994.) Programs that work within this developmental period need to focus on unique challenges the individual girls are facing that are not being supported in other areas of life (Sanderson & Richards, 2010).
The adolescent stage of life for girls can be very problematic, not only is there often a drastic decline in self-esteem but girls also face challenges in terms of body image and their academic performance (Mazzarella & Pecorca, 2007). There are circumstances that girls may not feel equipped to deal with on their own, such as eating disorders and varying degrees of depression that programs can help assist with (Pipher, 1994). The challenge of a negative body image and understanding physical changes to their bodies, girls often have difficulty accepting who they are and continuing with their previous passions or even maintaining important relationships (Shandler, 1999). In the early adolescent phase of development, girls become focused on how to please those around them rather than what is best for their own self. (Haag, 1999).
Mary Pipher, author of Reviving Ophelia, suggests that long-term plans to help adolescent girls should involve cultural changes, such as, changes within our school structure strengthening of community within neighborhoods, fighting against addictions, advocating for gender equality and limiting violence. Pipher also suggests that all people are responsible for this change including teachers, parents, community members, not just those who advocate for the girls. It is the responsibility of the community as a whole to provide programs and resources to best equip girls to choose the path to overcome the challenges they face, it is crucial that the girls can visualize the success (Pipher, 1994).
Programs need to be a catalyst for girls to have a sense of belonging as they move into adolescence. Programs, specifically leadership programs, have the ability to be designed to not only provide a sense of belonging but to allow the girls the opportunity to develop their skills and qualities to serve their communities. By allowing girls to serve in such leadership roles within their schools and communities they are able to see what leaders can look like rather than what leadership is perceived to be (Girl Scout Research Institute, 2008). Although girls have more opportunities for leadership today, they still face societal pressure to adapt to established perceptions of what it means to be a girl (Girls Inc, 2006).
Reflection
Adolescent girls face many changes during this developmental phase. Journaling, or blogging, could be a possible positive path for girls to share their personal experience and thoughts. Reflective journaling or blogging can be utilized in programs to help girls gain knowledge about their own progress and the progress of those around them. This can be used to help the girls understand their own roles in their communities as well as assist in documentation of their progress (Davis, 2010).
Through reflective processing, girls can identify how they are developing a personal sense of identity. The personal sense of identity helps them further develop their own sense of community and how they fall into the larger community (Manago, Brown, & Leaper, 2009). The girls should be directed to focus their reflections on values, ideologies, traditions, and other roles of their own community. This can be guided into what roles the girls feel they will be part of as an adult within their community (Yates & Youniss, 1998).
Mentorship
Mentoring is not a new concept in many developmental programs, particularly mentoring between an adult and youth member. Often times these mentoring relationships are focused on preparing the youth for the future and helping them develop in different areas positively (Dondero, 1997). Adult to youth mentoring relationships are a crucial aspect in prevention techniques. These relationships can be useful in intervention methods with many vulnerable groups of youth. These relationships have also been shown to help reduce school dropout, unemployment and teen pregnancy (de Anda, 2001).
Mentors need to listen to, care for, provide advice to, and share information and experience with the adolescent girl they have been partnered with (Dondero, 1997). The programs working to develop girls or girl’s leadership programs need to seek out volunteer mentors within the immediate community. These mentors need to commit to both the program and the girls, to be a positive role model and help the girls stay on a positive track within their program and life. It has been found that programs with a mentoring aspect are more successful than similar youth programs without a mentorship aspect, the most successful of these programs are ones that expect frequent contact over a long period of time (Southwick, Morgan, Vythilingam, & Charney, 2006).
Research shows that mentoring relationships between adults and youth have a positive impact on social, emotional and academic performance of adolescent girls. In studies that were reviewed on these relationships the girls involved became more self-reliant, had a more positive self-image than before they entered the program, and their attitude about their life was more optimistic (Maldonado, Quarles, Lacey, & Thompson, 2008). As these mentoring relationships grow, the adolescent girls are found to imitate their mentor’s cognitive strategies and behaviors. There has been research on such imitation that finds the repetitive nature of a strong mentorship allows for new neuronal branches within the brain to be formed and overall neural growth (Southwick, Morgan, Vythilingam, & Charney, 2006).
The mentors involved in the program should assist the girls developing skills to make choices to not engage in and avoid negative behaviors. These mentors can also assist in helping the mentee find ways to improve academic achievement leading to career opportunities and building upon their life experiences. Experienced mentors can assist the girls in understanding the impact of at-risk behaviors and how to utilize what they have to improve their self-esteem (de Anda, 2001). These strong, diverse, intergenerational relationships promote knowledge, initiative and transformation that most programs desire.
Girl Scouts is a long standing example of the mentorship principle. Within Girl Scouts there is a girl to adult framework in the foundation of their program. They operate on an understanding that the girls need adult partners to help guide them in taking on increased responsibilities, leadership roles, decision-making. As the girls grow-up within the Girl Scouts program the focus of mentorship changes along with the development of the girl and the needed skill set. The adults within the Girl Scouts program are committed to the youth leadership principles of the program, they view the young girls as valuable, needed decision makers (Girl Scout Research Institute, 2007).
Program Structure
Similar to adult and youth leader development models, youth leadership development programs often take on proficiencies that cover beyond the leadership realm and incorporate moral development, character education and skills for academic success. (Rehm, 2014). As girls grow and move into the adolescence stage they will desire to lead with more of a vision and/or voice. There is a need to continually develop skills, such as communication, conflict resolution, how to be a good role model, how to create a positive change, organization and other planning abilities (Schoenberg & Salmond, 2007).
As girls move through the development program their skills should be improved in a way that they increasingly see themselves as leaders. This belief in themselves should be focused on as it will likely improve their participation in their schools, communities, homes, friends and other extracurricular activities. In order for the girls to believe in the programs and continue to participate it is important that in development they have ownership in the decisions and actions taking place within the program. This engagement in decision making along with other activities of the program the girls are more likely to participate and have a positive experience (Shernoff, 2010).
Girls leadership development programs should incorporate youth leadership goals. These programs are best served by utilizing a youth-directed approach that highlights empowerment, organizational skills and planning needed for leadership development (Walker & Larson, 2006). The focus on skill development, voice of the youth, and involvement will continue to challenge the girls to grow. This provides the program to also include cause-based actions as well as the importance and value of affirmations (Zeldin, Christens, & Powers, 2012)
Youth development programs overall are moving towards giving the youth increased control in the programs they are involved in. This can lead to increased responsibility for girls who have been involved longer than others, increased civic involvement, and a strong focus on impact that girls can have today rather than the impact they will have as adult’s tomorrow’s (Girl Scout Research Institute, 2007).
Girls involved in the program also will benefit from a model of shared leadership rather than solely one individual leader (Girl Scout Research Institute, 2008). As seen with the model utilized by Girl Scouts, single sex programs, or in this case girls-only programs allow for success, especially within leadership roles. Girls-only programs allow for a safe space for the girls to develop their sense of self and their skills while in a culture of trust with their peers and adults (Schoenberg & Riggins, 2003). In same sex programs or environments, the girls will have an increased sense of safety to talk about issues that they wouldn’t necessarily feel comfortable discussing with the opposite sex. This can also be applied to trying new activities or sports without as much fear of failure or pressure to act or look a particular way (Girl Scout Research Institute, 2002).
The Forum for Youth Investment (2001) identified core elements of successful efforts within youth development programs; fostering motivation, increasing capacity, and creating opportunity. By fostering motivation, the youth will have a better awareness of their own commitment, a sense of responsibility, and the root causes of issues that surround them. Increasing capacity allows for the development of the needed skills, knowledge and strategies. The final element, creating opportunity, is a focus on allowing for a range of different chances for the girls to work on their skills and passions for issues. This will allow for the girls to move at their own pace but with an emphasis on continual movement.
Place-Based Education
Varying degrees of place based education are found in many youth development programs. Place-based education can be viewed in many different ways, two primary ways found in this research were an American context and a Canadian context. The American context was more focused on involving the local community within the program development whereas the Canadian context was focused more on an education within the outdoor environment (Harrison, 2010). Place-based education can be used within youth development programs to help the girls understand the environments that surround them. This can be used to assist the girls in the integration of their own community and history to better able girls to understand the link between themselves and their place (Sobel, 2004).
Place-based education emphasizes experiences of learning and development that allow the girls to explore ways to create their own knowledge and leadership. The exploration of the girl’s own leadership skills can be her creation of a learning experience. The girl’s ownership of the program is more likely when they create their own learning experience and agenda, the youth are found to be more engaged in a place-based learning environment. Mentors or other program leaders can act as co-learners or guides in this model. Mentors will have a stronger impact when they help the girls through this process rather than simply teaching them knowledge. It is said that the mentors or teachers can be creators of curriculum rather than dispensers (Smith, 2002).
Place-based education within youth development programs can go beyond the physical environment around them. This model can reach into the non-physical environment surrounding the youth such as political, economic, and social cultural aspects of a community (Ardoin, 2006).
The engagement with the program, girls and the local community can improve the compatibility between place and experience. Beginning education and development initially within a local community can offer a more abundant educational experience. Place-based education can expand beyond the local community to help the girls understand their impact on global issues. Both the American and Canadian context for place-based education can be brought together in a development program by highlighting the human/nature divide and if relevant the outdoor environmental issues in the local community. A girl’s experience about place can provide a foundation for a starting point within her program (Hill, 2013).