Iola Leroy by Frances Harper, The House of Mirth by Edith Wharton, and Sula by Toni Morrison are all blatantly different novels, written by their discernibly different authors who despite having lived in vastly different time differences and social classes, all find a common theme. The idea that masculinity is a delicate, idealized notion is presented as a prevalent theme among the male characters of each of the three novels by each of their respective authors. Each of these male characters provide unique insights and outcomes from how the enforcement of the idealization of masculinity can effect one’s personality and actions.
The social construct of masculinity is much more than simply a set of traits that are held by men. It is defined as mainly the denunciation of one’s feminine aspects along with anything or anyone with a homosexual orientation rather than merely the verification of one’s masculine properties (Pochmara). When boys are born, regardless of the culture or social class, they are given a set of preconceived standards on what is “manly” or appropriate for them to partake in with no “risk” to their given gender identity. There can be more than one masculine identity and in the United States, this idea has continued to evolve. Prior to the 1830s, there were two models of male identity that was prevalent: the “Genteel Patriarch” and the “Heroic Artisan.” However they were both replaced with the “Marketplace Manhood” which personified the relationship between one’s manliness and one’s financial success (Pochmara). As a result of the urbanization and change in American economic conditions, self-employment which was considered a mark of virile pride was on a decline. There was a rise in corporate and market jobs but the developing corporate culture was seen as feminine (Pochmara). As the advancement of females in the working world became more prominent, it would have imposed a large threat to masculinity. While more and more women attempted to gain more rights especially those taking on leadership roles, were seen as mannish and that impeded on the maleness of actual men. The assessment of one’s masculinity comes from the milieu and upbringing of said individual. A portion in that environment of judgments would come from women as well. An extremely evident and common feature shared between the novels: Iola Leroy, The House of Mirth and Sula are that each of these works have no shortage of strong female characters who would feel at ease sharing their opinions about anything or anyone.
The theme of masculinity in Iola Leroy is challenged. The male characters presented in the novel by Frances Harper all exude some sort traditional masculine qualities, yet the men –especially the black slaves– are not necessarily seen as desired male specimens or even as men in general. The character of Tom Anderson was among the first to be introduced to the reader. Tom Anderson had seen Iola Leroy as a potential romantic interest, his love for her was described, “As a Pagan might worship a distant star and wish to call it his own, so he loved Iola (Harper 40).” Tom had no desire to act upon his infatuation despite having such strong feelings for her. His thoughts included, “"I jis' think dat she's splendid. Las' week I had to take some of our pore boys to de hospital, an' she war dere, lookin' sweet an' putty ez an angel (Harper 41).” When he had passed away, Iola had kissed him and her feelings for him were clearly not romantic. She did not see him as a man but rather simply a friend. Despite all the examples of his powerful physical strength and admiration from other male characters, she only saw him as no more than a friend. There are multiple times where she only defined him as a friend. When he had returned injured, Iola was remarked as such, “With tender devotion Iola watched her faithful friend (Harper 49).” The platonic nature of her feelings toward him can be solidified even more with her statement, “You are the best friend I have had since I was torn from my mother. I should be so lonely without you (Harper 50)." Iola felt no feelings towards Tom that suggested romance, she did not see him as a male. She gave him a kiss, which in her milieu is quite scandalous. Her character is portrayed to be modest and chaste, yet she performed an act of physical affection upon a man who is not her relative. When Dr. Gresham had held her hand she reacted, “As he held her hand in his a tell-tale flush rose to her cheek (Harper 92).” At this minor touch she had a physical reaction, yet when she had kissed Tom there was no such response. Perhaps it was due to the fact that Tom had not yet proved himself as a man to her. Dr. Gresham had previously proposed to her which would then force her to think of a supposed future with the man and her as his wife. She stated Tom Anderson a merely a friend but when she thought of Gresham she affirmed that she thought of him as a man, “In the chambers of her imagery were pictures of noble deeds; of high, heroic men, knightly, tender, true, and brave. In Dr. Gresham she saw the ideal of her soul exemplified (Harper 93).” Uncle Daniel is another male character in Iola Leroy who’s masculinity is reduced. He has a myriad of positive qualities which the other characters admire profusely. His master trusts him so much that when he goes off to war to fight in the Confederate army, he entrusts Uncle Daniel to take care of his family. Despite having the opportunity to escape, he chooses to stay and be a slave to the family. “Der's nobody here to look arter Miss Mary an' de chillen, but myself, an' to see dat eberything goes right. I promised Marse Robert I would do it, an' I mus' be as good as my word (Harper 24).” His master’s family was never concerned about the loyalty of Uncle Daniel. They allowed him to play with the kids and partake in household chores. To them, there was no way he would bring them harm at all as he was presented as a moral character. However; there was no evidence of him displaying sort of manliness or any other character respecting him as a male, just respect for his decent and ethical personality. The characters of Tom Anderson and Uncle Daniel are presented to the reader in a way that invokes pity or general liking. In spite of the fact that they were both well-loved within the novel, they assist in the suggestion that being good, respectable men did not necessarily mean that they were very masculine men.
The House of Mirth offers a much more different array of male characters in contrast with the ones in Iola Leroy. In this vastly different setting, the social concept of masculinity had to adapt and evolve. Whereas, in earlier definitions of being masculine in America, one would be able to provide for the family while being independent from others. Nonetheless; in this novel’s setting of late 19th century to early 20th century New York high society, to be masculine would have meant to be able to prove and provide monetary prominence as well as social status. The character of Lawrence Selden has the decent occupation of being a lawyer, in another context or social circle he would have fit in better. In comparison to the other characters who are basically as aristocratic and patrician as one could get at the time, he was a mere outsider. He did not have the necessary qualities of a gentlemen who could deemed desirably masculine in that sort of social circle. When Lawrence Selden was first introduced in the novel, Lily Bart had no qualms about entering his apartment alone with him. An act that would be considered salacious and controversial for a lower class girl of that era, let alone a highborn lady such as herself. However; it would be an understatement to say that Lily is a rather brazen and risk-taking individual. On the other hand, when she still had maintained hope that she would marry a scion from a lineage of old money, she did not truly see Selden as a man. At least one that she would not have considered masculine enough as her partner. He did not have the traditional male qualities desired by her society and expectations. She describes to him the expected nature of their relationship,
“Don’t you see, that there are men enough to say pleasant things to me, and that what I want is a friend who won't be afraid to say disagreeable ones when I need them? Sometimes I have fancied you might be that friend—I don't know why, except that you are neither a prig nor a bounder, and that I shouldn't have to pretend with you or be on my guard against you (Wharton 9).”
She maintains that she only required a friend out of her relationship with him, he will merely be her confidant while she is on a hunt for a more suitable man to ask for her hand. Even when she lets impulsive emotions and her own self-sabotaging ways stray her from her original goal, Lily still chooses to never be with him. Selden was never at the right place or the right time to be able to be with her. Perhaps she had once considered him an appropriate partner in the second portion of the novel when she falls from high society, but in the end she maintains her stance that he is just not right for her. Another emasculated man from the same social circle is the character of Simon Rosedale. He has wealth and power but not public status. Rosedale is never part of the inner circle of males in New York society as a result of racial prejudice. His race deemed him to a status of that below even the women of the same society in a time where there was most definitely did not have gender equality. He proposes to Lily more than once but all those offers were quickly rejected. She certainly does not see him as suitable man in general, let alone one good enough to be her husband. Rosedale is known to be unpleasant and unsavory, not the sort of masculine that one would be desired at time, “Mr. Simon Rosedale was a man who made it his business to know everything about every one, whose idea of showing himself to be at home in society was to display an inconvenient familiarity with the habits of those with whom he wished to be thought intimate (Wharton).” His own longing to fit in had rendered him unattractive in the very same eyes he had so very wished to please.
Sula by Toni Morrison presents a myriad of very different male characters in a small community that has a very peculiar set of values pertaining to masculinity. The setting of Medallion, Ohio provides a strange environment for the two female protagonists to develop in and since the novel follows the interconnected lives of Nel and Sula, their inputs on the male characters are noteworthy. Both of them did not have strong relationships with men, being mostly raised by imposing matriarchal women. The small poor town is full of unsavory examples of males and consequently their level of positive masculinity would be measured by those who would and could care enough about them to judge them in this manner. Sula Peace’s maternal uncle Plum is an important example of how much fragile masculinity can be. Plum went off to fight in World War I and returned as a completely different individual. Serving in the military, “Offers men unique resources for the construction of a masculine identify defined by emotional control, overt heterosexual desire, physical fitness, self-discipline, self-reliance… qualities that are in line with the hegemonic ideal (Hinojosa).” One would expect a healthy, strong, young man to return in better than ever but Plum regressed into a child. He was no longer the robust male that Eva Peace raised and loved so intensely. “Eva stepped back from the bed and let the crutches rest under her arms. She rolled a bit of newspaper into a tight stick about six inches long, lit it and threw it onto the bed where the kerosene-soaked Plum lay in snug delight (Morrison 48).” She had taken it upon herself to rid the world of what she seemed to think was a failed attempt of a man, one that she distinctly hoped would be truly masculine. Jude Greene was the husband of Nel Wright, a man that had qualities admired by women but distained by men. Despite being handsome and charming, he had the embarrassing occupation of being a waiter. The job gave him a decent pay but it was considered extremely effeminate and that caused him great emasculation. The weighty and constant challenge to his masculinity may have been a driving force to why he would end up having an affair with the best friend of his wife.
Frances Harper, Edith Wharton and Toni Morrison were all able to to provide examples of how fragile the nature of masculinity could be, within different contexts and settings. The social construct is a common but also keeps evolving in order to keep up with the milieu. The authors adapted the societal standard in a way that would make sense to their audience, as well as providing another compelling layer to the plots of their respective novels through these male characters.