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Essay: Electrocardiogram

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Electrocardiogram

An ECG ‘ A Review
1. Electrocardiogram
The electrocardiogram (ECG) is a time-varying signal reflecting the ionic current flow which causes the cardiac fibers to contract and subsequently relax. The surface ECG is obtained by recording the potential difference between two electrodes placed on the surface of the skin [1]. Dr. Willem Einthoven invented the first ‘electrokardiogram’ in 1902; the electrical activity of heart has been recorded [2]. The ECG signal provides the following information of a human heart [3]
‘ Heart position and its relative chamber size
‘ Impulse origin and propagation
‘ Heart rhythm and conduction disturbances
‘ Extent and location of myocardial ischemia
‘ Changes in electrolyte concentrations
‘ Drug effects on the heart
Most of the ECG signal energy is concentrated in the QRS complex but there are diagnostically important changes in the low amplitude PQ and ST intervals, the P and T waves that could be completely masked by EMG noise [4].

2. Human Heart
The heart consists of four hollow chambers through which is rhythmically driven to muscle contraction generates the force to circulate blood throughout the body. The right heart includes a small atrium leading into a larger right ventricle. The right atrium receives blood from most of the body and feeds it into the right ventricle. When the right ventricle contracts it pumped blood to the lungs, where the blood is oxygenated and relieved of carbon dioxide. The left atrium receives blood from the lungs and conducts it into the left ventricle which is distributed to whole body. The left atrium and left ventricle form the left heart. The heart muscle alternatively relaxes and contracts to pump blood to form a sequence of events termed a cardiac cycle.

Figure 2.1: Circulations of blood within the heart [5]
When the heart beats, the cells of the heart depolarize. When depolarization occurs, positively and negatively charged ions (Na+, Ca2+, K+, and Cl-) move in and out of the heart cells [6]. This movement of ions creates electrical changes on the surface of each cell. Each mechanical heartbeat is triggered by an action potential which originates from a rhythmic pacemaker within the heart and is conducted rapidly throughout the organ to produce a coordinated contraction. Before the action potential is propagated, it must be initiated by pacemakers, cardiac cells that possess the property of automaticity. That is, they have the ability to spontaneously depolarize, and so function as pacemaker cells for the rest of the heart. Such cells are found in the Sino-Atrial node (SA node), in the atrio-ventricular node (AV node) and in certain specialized conduction systems within the atria and ventricles. Each beat of our heart is triggered by an electrical impulse from special sinus node cells in the atrium.

There are various types of heart diseases occur in human bodies. They are inflammation of heart tissues under this again types of inflammation exists namely, endocarditis, pericarditis, cardiomyopathy and rheumatic. Also because of reduced blood flow to cardiac muscle various diseases occur [7].

3. ECG Waveform & Intervals:
ECG tracing of the cardiac cycle (heartbeat) consists of a P wave, a QRS complex, a T wave, and a U wave [8]. The electrical impulse travels to other parts of the heart and causes the heart to contract [6]. Electrodes placed on the skin can sense the mill volt potentials are caused when the muscle ‘depolarizes’ during each heart beat.

Figure 3.1: Electrophysiology of heart [9]
Each heart muscle cell has a charge across its outer wall, or cell membrane. If this charge gets reduce towards zero is called de-polarization, consequently it activates the mechanisms in the cells that causes to contraction of camber. In each interval of heartbeat a healthy heart will have an orderly progression of a wave of depolarization that is triggered by the cells in the sinoatrial node, spreads out through the atrium, passes through "intrinsic conduction pathways" and then spreads all over the ventricles as shown in figure 3.1 Basic concept of electricity & ECG signal is, as an impulse moves towards a + ve electrode; it makes a positive deflection on ECG. The ECG signal is characterized by six peaks and valleys labeled with successive letters of the alphabet P, Q, R, S, T, and U as shown in figure 3.2 The frequency of ECG signal is 0.05 Hz-100Hz with amplitude varies from 0. 5- 4 mv.

Figure3.2: Schematic of normal ECG waveform
ECG is a combination of wave and interval as shown in table 3.1:
Feature Description Duration
RR interval The interval between an R wave and the next R wave is the inverse of the heart rate. Normal resting heart rate is between 50 and 100 bpm 0.6s to 1.2s
P wave During normal atrial depolarization, the main electrical vector is directed from the SA node towards the AV node and spreads from the right atrium to the left atrium. This result the P wave. The p wave begins with the first deviation from baseline and finishes when the wave meets the baseline once again. 80ms
PR interval The PR interval is measured from the beginning of the QRS complex. The PR interval reflects the time the electrical impulse takes to travel from the sinus node through the AV node and entering the ventricles. the PR interval is therefore a good estimate of AV node function 120 to 200ms
PR segment The PR segment connects the P wave and the QRS complex. This coincides with the electrical conduction from the AV node to the bundle of His to the bundle branches and then to the Purkinje Fibers. This electrical activity does not produce a contraction directly and is merely traveling down towards the ventricles and this shows up flat on the ECG. The PR interval is more clinically relevant. 50 to 120ms
QRS complex The QRS complex reflects the rapid depolarization of the right and left ventricles. They have a large muscle mass compared to the atria and so the QRS complex usually has much larger amplitude than the p wave. 80 to 120ms
ST segment The ST segment connects the QRS complex and the t wave. The ST segment represents the period when the ventricles are depolarized. it is isoelectric or baseline 80 to120ms
T wave The ‘T’ wave of the ECG is associated with the return of the ventricular mass to its resting electrical state re polarization (recovery). T wave is normally slightly asymmetrical and is usually larger than the P wave 160ms
ST interval The ST interval is measured from the j point to the end of the T wave 320ms
QT interval The QT interval is measured from the beginning the QRS complex to the end of the T wave. Means this is the time during which depolarization and re polarization occur. A prolonged QT interval is a risk factor for ventricular tachyarrhythmia 300 to 430ms
Table 3.1: The description and duration of each wave in the ECG waveform [8]

4. ECG Leads:
Usually in standard clinical electrocardiogram, 12 different potential differences taken from ECG leads. The term ‘lead’ in context to an ECG refers to the voltage difference between two of the electrodes, and it is this difference which is recorded by the equipment. When the metal electrode makes contact with the skin via an electrolyte, ions diffuse into and out of the metal. Differential rates of diffusion will give rise to an electrode potential. once might think that when a pair of electrodes are used such as in a differential arrangements these electrode potential would cancel and everything would be ok unfortunately two electrodes are different with respect to hydrogen electrode.

Figure 4.1: The standard 12-lead placement of electrode [5]
As shown in Figure 4.1, the standard 12’lead ECG is based on 3 limb leads (I, II, III), 3 augmented leads (limb potential relative to a modified Wilson terminal, aVR, aVL, aVF)
and 6 leads placed across the front of the chest and referenced to the Wilson terminal (Lead V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6)

5. QRS Complex Detection:
For analyzing the ECG signal QRS complex detection is a vital procedure; however, it is not always straightforward. In cardiac signal processing a great variety of QRS detection algorithms are used for reliable QRS detection. To detect the QRS complex more accurately it is necessary to identify the exact R-peak location from the recorded data. Conditional differences in the ECG waveform increase the complexity of QRS detection, due to the high degree of heterogeneity in the QRS wave.
Usually in QRS detection two states are involved they are preprocessing stage and decision stage. In preprocessing state filters are applied to make ECG signal noise free which is very necessary for exactly detection of QRS complex. QRS complex is key point for predicting correct diseases and curing them. Figure 5.1 shows generalized blocks use in QRS detection.

Figure 5.1:- Common units use in QRS detection [5].

For detecting QRS complex broadly two approaches are used [5],
1. Artificial Neural Network Approaches.
2. Hybrid Fuzzy’Neuro’Based QRS Detection.

5.1 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) Approaches.
A neural network is a general mathematical computation which models the operation of biological neural systems. In ECG signal processing mostly the multilayer perceptron (MLP), radial basis function (RBF) networks, and learning vector quantization (LVQ) networks are used [5]. An ANN structure is the interconnection of several simple nonlinear processing elements, called neurons, interconnected via weighted synapses to form a network.

5.1.1 Multi Layer Perceptron (MLP):
A multilayer perceptron is a feed forward artificial neural network model that maps sets of input data and gives set of appropriate outputs. A MLP consists of multiple layers of nodes in a directed graph, with each layer fully connected to the next one. MLP also use for brain modeling in biomedical computational field [9].

5.1.2 Radial Basis Function (RBF):
A radial basis function network is an artificial neural network that uses radial basis functions as activation functions. The output of the network is a linear combination of radial basis functions of the inputs and neuron parameters. Following equation (a) of Gaussian function is commonly use as basis function [10].

”.. (a)

5.1.3 Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ):
LVQ can be understood as a special case of an artificial neural network, various algorithms are used in linear vector quantization but mostly use k-Nearest Neighbor algorithm (k-NN) and self originating map (SOP) algorithms are use [11].

5.2 Hybrid Fuzzy’Neuro’Based QRS Detection
In an environment of inaccuracy and uncertainty, biomedical diagnostic decisions relating to QRS detection and ECG interpretation are expected from the machine system [5]. This will possible through a fuzzy inference system (FIS) employing fuzzy if’then rules that can model the qualitative aspects of human knowledge and reasoning processes without employing precise quantitative analysis.

The main novelty of fuzzy set theory compared with classical set theory is the concept of partial membership of an element in a class or a category. So, the main differences between fuzzy logic and classical two valued (e.g., true or false) or multi valued (e.g., true, false, and indeterminate) logic are that:
a) Fuzzy logic can deal with fuzzy quantities (e.g., most, few, quite a few, many, almost all), which are in general represented by fuzzy numbers,
b) The notions of truth and false are both allowed to be fuzzy using fuzzy true/false values (e.g., very true, mostly false).
Then, the ultimate goal of fuzzy logic is to provide foundations for approximate reasoning and this approach is very useful for QRS complex detection.

6. Feature Extraction of ECG Signal[12]:
A good feature extraction methodology can accurately classify cardiac abnormalities. Several methods have been proposed for extracting features of one cardiac cycle. The features of one cardiac cycle may be time domain features or frequency domain features.

6.1 Manual ECG feature extraction methods:
A classical manual method for the QT interval measurement is the maximum slope intercept method. The tangent through the maximum down slope of the T wave is drawn. The T wave offset is then the intercept with the isoelectric line. However, this method is too time-consuming for clinical practice. The visual observation of ECG patterns is widely used as well as ECG rulers.
6.2 ECG Feature Extraction Based on Derivative-Threshold-Method [13.]
An algorithm for the automated detection of peaks offset of the P and T wave and the QRS complex. The ECG signal is first split in single heart beats. The characteristic points of the ECG are then determined for each beat and each lead separately. In a second step the identified points of each lead are combined and one resulting on- and offset is calculated.
6.3 ECG Feature Extraction using sampling process
Two sampling windows were formed based on R-peak. The window between FP 50 ms and 100 ms is considered which covers a content of QRS-complex morphology as the portion of the ECG. A 60-Hz sampling rate is applied to the above window of the QRS-complex resulting in ten features.

Figure 6.1 above figures a) and b) shows sampling points are taken from ECG signal and then determine the QRS complex and ST segment features[14].

7. ECG Database:
For analysis purpose ECG database is taken from www.physionet.org, which is freely available large collection of recorded physiological signals. Pure ECG is taken from MIT-BIH Arrhytho6mia Database and EMG noise is taken from MIT-BIH noise stress database.
7.1 MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology / Beth Israel Hospital (MIT/BIH) Database is a rich database of several hundred ECG recordings, extending over 200 hours. Each recording contains one to three signals and ranges from 20 seconds to 24 hours in duration [15]. Most of the signals have been annotated on beat-to-beat basis. In August 1989 a CD-ROM was produced containing the original MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database (developed between 1975 and 1979, and first released in 1980), as well as a large number of supplementary recordings assembled for various research projects between 1981 and 1989. In September 1991, this data was made freely available on Internet www.physionet.org on PhysioNet, which is a web-based resource supplying well characterized physiologic signals and related open-source software to the biomedical research community. From September 2000, the data archive named PhysioBank, containing roughly 35 gigabytes of recorded signals and annotations was made available via PhysioNet .In most records, the upper signal is a modified limb lead II (MLII), obtained by placing the electrodes on the chest. The lower signal is usually a modified lead V1. The original analog recordings were made using nine Del Mar Avionics model 445 two-channel recorders. The analog outputs of the playback unit were filtered to limit analog-to-digital converter (ADC) saturation and for anti-aliasing, using a passband from 0.1 to 100 Hz relative to real time. ADCs were unipolar, with 11-bit resolution over a ??5 mV range. Sample values thus range from 0 to 2047 inclusive, with a value of 1024 corresponding to zero volts. The bandpass-filtered signals were digitized at 360 Hz per signal relative to real time using hardware constructed at the MIT Biomedical Engineering Center and at the BIH Biomedical Engineering Laboratory.
The MIT-BIH Arrhythmia database contains 48 ECG signals that were recorded between 1975 and 1979 at the Beth Israel Hospital Arrhythmia Laboratory. The recordings were digitized at 360 samples per second per channel with 11-bit resolution over a 10 mV range. Each record was independently annotated by two or more cardiologists; MIT-BIH Arrhythmia Database where annotated ECG signals are described by a text header file (.hea), a binary file (.dat) and a binary annotated file (.atr). Header file consists of detailed information such as number of samples, sampling frequency, format of ECG signal, type and number of ECG leads, patient’s history and the detailed clinical information. In binary data signal file, the signal is stored in 212 format which means each sample requires number of lead times 12 bits to be stored and the binary annotation file consists of beat annotation about half (25 of 48 complete records, and reference annotation files for all 48 records) of this database has been freely available .

7.2 MIT-BIH Noise Stress Database:
To add high frequency real time EMG noise into pure ECG signal is accessed from MIT-BIH noise stress database. This database includes 12 half-hour ECG recordings and 3 half-hour recordings of noise typical in ambulatory ECG recordings [15]. The noise recordings were made using physically active volunteers and standard ECG recorders, leads, and electrodes; the electrodes were placed on the limbs in positions in which the subjects’ ECGs were not visible. The three noise records were assembled from the recordings by selecting intervals that contained predominantly baseline wander (in record ‘bw’), muscle (EMG) artifact (in record ‘ma’), and electrode motion artifact (in record ’em’).Record ‘bw’ contains primarily baseline wander, a low frequency signal usually caused by motion of the subject or the leads. Record ’em’ contains electrode motion artifacts with significant amounts of baseline wander and muscle noise as well. Record ‘ma’ contains primarily muscle noise (EMG) with a spectrum which overlaps that of the ECG, which extends to higher frequency.

8. Sources of Noise:
ECG signals may be corrupted by various kinds of noise. The main sources of noise are [16]:
1. Power line interference
2. Electrode Contact noise
3. Motion Artifact
4. Muscle contraction
5. Base line wander
6. Noise generated by electronic devices used in signal processing
7. Electrosurgical noise
‘ Power Line Noise:
A major problem in the recording of electrocardiogram (ECG’s) is that the measured signal is corrupted by 50 Hz power line interference. It consists of 50-60Hz pickup and harmonics, which can be modeled as sinusoids. Power Line Noise, of 50Hz component includes the amplitude and frequency content of the signal [16]. A 60 Hz notch filter can be used remove the power line interferences [17].Figure 8.1 shows 60Hz power line interference.

Figure 8.1:60 Hz Power line interference [17].

‘ Electrode Contact Noise:
Electrode contact noise is transient interference caused by loss of contact between the electrode and the skin, which can be permanent or intermittent. This type of noise can be modeled as a randomly occurring rapid baseline transition that decays exponentially to a base line and has a superimposed 60Hz component. The duration of the noise signal is 1 sec and the amplitude is the maximum-recorded with the frequency of 60 Hz [16].

‘ Motion Artifact:
Motion artifacts are transient baseline changes in the electrode skin impedance with electrode motion. The duration of this kind of noise signal is 100-500ms with amplitude of 500% peak-to-peak ECG amplitude [16]. It can generate larger amplitude signal in ECG waveform. Main reason of motion artifacts will be usually vibrations or movement of the subject. An adaptive filter can be used to remove the interference of motion artifacts [18].

Figure 8.2: ECG signal having motion artifacts [17].

‘ Muscle contraction:
Due to muscle contradiction mill volt potentials gets generated figure 1.7 shows signal resulting from muscle contraction causes band limited Gaussian noise. Elecrtomyogram (EMG) interferences generate rapid fluctuation which is very faster than ECG wave. Its frequency content is dc to 10 KHz and duration is 50 ms

Figure 8.3: ECG signal having motion artifacts [17].
‘ Base Line Wander:
Base-line drift can sometimes caused by variations in temperature and bias in instrumentation and amplifiers. The baseline wander of the ECG signals causes problems in the detection of peaks. For example, due to the wander, the T peak could be higher than R peak, and it is detected as an R peak instead. The amplitude variation is 15% of peak-to-peak ECG amplitude and at 0.15 to 0.3 Hz.

Figure 8.4: Baseline drifts in ECG signal [17].

‘ Noise generated by electronic devices used in signal processing:
Artifacts generated by electronic devices in the instrumentation system. The input amplifier has saturated and no information about the ECG can reach the detector. In this case an alarm must sound to alert the ECG technician to take corrective action.

‘ Electrosurgical noise :
Electrosurgical noise completely destroys the ECG and can be represented by a large amplitude sinusoid with frequencies approximately between 100 kHz and 1 MHz

9. Importance of noise free ECG signal:
The extraction of high-resolution ECG signals from recordings contaminated with background noise is an important issue to investigate. The goal for ECG signal enhancement is to separate the valid signal components from the undesired artifacts, so as to present an ECG that facilitates easy and accurate interpretation. When the doctors are examining the patient on-line and want to review the ECG of the patient in real-time, there is a good chance that the ECG signal has been contaminated by noise. Correct and in time diagnosis is very important. If ECG is signal having noise then diagnosis of patients may went wrong and patient’s lives become endangered. Hence de noising of ECG signal is very important previous to diagnosis [13].
10. Filtering techniques for ECG signal:
In the filters design using windows like Rectangular, Bartlett, Hanning, Hamming and Blakman it has been found that a trade off exists between the main lobe width and the side lobe amplitude. The main lobe width is inversely proportional to the N order of the filter. An increase in the window length decreases the transition band of the filter. However, minimum stop band attenuation and pass band ripple, the designer must find a window with an appropriate side lobe level and then choose order to achieve the prescribed transition width [19].
The correct diagnosis of cardiovascular disease depends on the accuracy of ECG acquisition. Mostly digital filters are use to make ECG noise free. Broadly ECG contaminated noise can remove by using wavelets, FIR filters and IIR filters.

10.1 FIR FILTER:
FIR filters have the impulse response of finite duration and can be implemented without feedback.

Figure 10.1: FIR filter of N order.
””””””” (a)
Above equation of FIR filter describes N order filtering where,
‘ x [n] is the input signal.
‘ y [n] is the output signal.
‘ {bi} is the impulse response.
‘ N is the filter order

Window techniques used in FIR filter are:-
A. Rectangular window: – The rectangular window is the simplest window, equivalent to replacing all but N values of a data sequence by zeros, making it appear as though the waveform suddenly turns on and off.
B. Kaiser window:- To achieve the proper stop band attenuation Kaiser window with is designed maximum stop band width and minimum stop band attenuation an FIR filter with side lobe attenuation of ?? dB, Kaiser window parameter ?? that affects the side lobe attenuation of the Fourier transform of the window is given by,
”””””. (a)
Where,
N = No. of order.
n = No. of sampling points.
Where ?? is the adjustable parameter and I (x) o is the modified zero order Bessel functions of the first Kind. The ?? can be defined as,
”””””’ (b)
In some literature the factor ?? is also defined and used in above equations [19]. While minimizing base line drift interference, if input SNR is -4.1699 then by using Kaiser window at 450 order filtered ECG signal can achieve having output SNR as -0.196[20].

C. Hamming window:-The hamming window function can be expressed as
”..””””” (a)
With ”””””’ (b)
The window is optimized to minimize the maximum (nearest) side lobe, giving it a height of about one-fifth that of the Hann window. This windowing technique is useful for removing power line noise from ECG signal [21].
D. Hanning window: – The hamming window function will be expressed by equation
”””””””’.. (a)
While minimizing base line drift interference, if input SNR is -4.1699 then by using Hanning window at 1000 order filtered ECG signal can achieve having output SNR as -0.194[20].
E. Blackman window:-The Blackman window function is given by

””’. (a)
If this window is used for removal of base line drift interference a order get increases i.e., for 1200 a input SNR having -4.1699 ECG signal gives filtered output with SNR -0.304 [21].

10.1 IIR FILTER:
The main drawback usually emphasized in connection with FIR filters is the higher number of coefficients compared to their IIR counterparts. For minimum number of filters order IIR gives results which having some trade of with FIR filters [22]. Following equation shows IIR filtering equation.
”””” (a)

There are four classical IIR filters namely Butterworth, Chebychev Type I and II, and Elliptic filters [22].

A. Butterworth filter: The decrease is very slow in the pass band and quick in the stop band. In a design problem where no ripple is acceptable in pass band and stop band, Butterworth filter is a good choice. Butterworth filter have low pass filter, high pass filter and notch filter. These filters are useful to remove baseline noise [24].

B. Chebyshev Type 1: This filter results in appearance of ripples in the passband. The stopband response is maximally flat. The transition from passband to stopband occurs faster than the Butterworth filter. If the ripples in the passband are acceptable, a Chebyshev filter usually require a lower-order transfer function than a Butterworth filter for the same specifications. This filter is useful for removing power line interference noise [23].

C. Chebyshev Type II: This filter results in appearance of ripples in the stopband. The passband response is maximally flat. The transition from passband to stopband occurs slower than the type I filter and for even filter order, it never reaches zero. Its advantage over type I is the absence of ripples in the passband. This filter is useful for removing power line interference noise [23].

D. Elliptic filter: The elliptic filter results in the steepest transition from passband to stopband by allowing ripples in both passband and stopband. This filter is used to remove both types of noise i.e., power line noise and baseline wander [25].

‘ Adaptive Filters:
By using FIR and IIR filters of fixed type coefficient, we can’t achieve optimal filtering results. Under such circumstances, we must design adaptive filters, to track the changes of signal and noise. Adaptive Filter it uses the filter parameters of a moment ago to automatically adjust the filter parameters of the present Moment, to adapt to the statistical properties of signal and noise unknown or random change, in order to achieve optimal Filtering.

Figure10.1:- Configuration for adaptive noise cancellation [27].

Figure 10.1 is given the general adaptive filtering display digital filter carries on filtering on the input signal x (n), produce output signal y (n). Adaptive algorithm adjusts the filter coefficient included in the vector w (n), in order to let the error signal e (n) to be the smallest. Error signal is the difference of useful signal d (n) and the filter output y (n).
The adaptive filter operates by sequentially estimating the measurement and process noise covariance’s and uses this covariance’s to estimate the Kalman gain and update the estimated ECG complexes. For long-term monitoring tasks in which the ECG signal feature change, the adaptive Kalman filter is capable of quickly adapting its noise estimation to match the filter’s output to the new input [28].Adaptive filters are best suitable for fetal ECG monitoring because they comprises information from earlier heartbeats.

11. Recent Techniques to analyze ECG signal:
There are broadly two platforms for analyzing real time ECG signal. DSP and FPGA are best suitable for computing continuous real time ECG signals. The digital signal processing (DSP) is one of the technologies most contributed in processing huge amount of data with higher operational speed in communication systems. DSP-based systems are less affected by environmental conditions. General advantages of DSP’s over analog Circuits are [29]:
‘ Implementations of complex linear or nonlinear algorithms are possible.
‘ Applications can modify easily by changing software.
‘ High reliability.
Typical applications using DSP processors require at least the basic system shown in Figure 11.1.consisting of analog inputs and outputs.

Figure11.1. DSP system with input and output [29]
In ECG analysis, ECG signal is initially given to an ADC followed by a DSP. DSP is enabled by programs loaded from MATLAB and CC STUDIO v5. The digital output is given to a DAC to get analog out.

Figure11.2. CC Studio programming environment

Above figure 11.2 shows IDE of CCS v5.Filter coefficients are exported to project in CCS by generating an ANSI C header file, which contains those coefficients. The header file defines global arrays for the filter coefficients. When you link the project to the header file, the linker allocates the global arrays in static memory locations in processor memory. Loading the executable file, the processor allocates enough memory to store the exported filter coefficients in its memory and writes the coefficients to the allocated memory and then start computation on coefficients.
MATLAB is a high-level language and interactive environment for numerical computation, visualization, and programming. Using MATLAB, you can analyze data, develop algorithms, and create models and applications.

FDA Tool to the CCS IDE text editor [29]:
1. Start FDA Tool by entering fdatool at the MATLAB command prompt.
2. Design a filter with the same structure, length, design method, specifications and data type that you done in your source code filter algorithm.
3. Click Store Filter to store your filter design. Storing the filter allows you to recall the design to modify it.
4. To export the filter coefficients, select Targets – Code Composer Studio IDE from the FDA Tool menu bar. The Export to Code Composer Studio IDE dialog box opens, as shown in Figure 11.3

5.

Figure11.3: Designing of FIR low pass filter using FDA tool

6. Set Export mode to C header file.
7. Enter Variable names in C header file for the parameters Numerator, Denominator, Numerator length, and Denominator length and click ok. Open the CC Studio and save the header file inside the project directory in CC Studio.
8. Create a new project and add all the required files to our project (including the header file).
9. Compile and download the code to the DSP kit.
A field-programmable gate array (FPGA) is an integrated circuit designed to be configured by a customer or a designer after manufacturing’hence "field-programmable".
Xilinx and Altera are the current FPGA market leaders. For making computations on these FPGAs MATLAB provides a powerful tool named as Simulink with Xilinx block sets .Xilinx System Generator allows the design of hardware system starting from a graphical high level Simulink environment. System Generator extends the traditional Hardware Description Language (HDL) design providing graphical modules, and thus does not require a detailed knowledge of this complex language. The Simulink graphical language allows an abstraction of the design through the use of available System Generator blocks and subsystems. This reduces the time necessary between the control design derivations and hardware implementation [30]. In addition, the software provides for the hardware simulation and hardware-in-the-loop verification, referred to as hardware co-simulation, from within this environment. This methodology provides easier hardware verification and implementation compared to HDL based approach. The Simulink simulation and hardware-in-the loop approach presents a far more cost efficient solution than other methodologies. The ability to quickly and directly realize a control system design as a real-time embedded system greatly facilitates the design process. Efficient rapid prototyping system requires a development environment targeting the hardware design platform. Xilinx block set was compiled to create the bit stream. Finally, a co-simulation was performed where the bit stream is downloaded to the FPGA board and the hardware outputs are analyzed by Simulink. The used tools are MATLAB R2007a with Simulink from Math Works, System Generator 10.1 for DSP and ISE 10.1 from Xilinx present such capabilities implemented on Spartan 3e series XC3s500e-4fg320. Although the Xilinx ISE 10.1 foundation software is not directly utilized, it is required due to the fact that it is running in the background when the System Generator blocks are implemented. The System Generator environment allows for the Xilinx line of FPGAs to be interfaced directly with Simulink.

Figure11.4: FPGA implementation of FIR High pass filters design with System Generator Tool [20].
Above figure elaborates basic requirement of Xilinx block set i.e., system generator which will provides all hardware co-simulation files those helps to dump generated VHDL code on FPGA hardware. JTAG co-sim is a block which gets generated after completion of hardware co-simulation process. Advantage of system generator from MATLAB is resource estimator and Timing analyzer.

12. References:
[1]. Dr. Ana-Maria Zagrean, ‘ Practical Notes of the Physiology Department II’ , Carol Davila Univ. of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest , Coordinator, 2nd Year English Module.
[2]. Larry H. Lybbert, ‘ECG Study Guide’ from Banner Staff Services.
[3]. A. J. Moss and S. Stern., ‘Noninvasive Electro cardiology,’ Clinical Aspects of Holter, London, Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders, 1996.
[4]. N N. Nikolaev, A. Gotchev , K. Egiazarian , Z. Nikolov, ‘Suppression of electromyogram interference on the electrocardiogram by transform domain denoising’ , Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing 2001, Vol. 39
[5]. Prof.Mohamad Adnan Alaoui , ‘Application of Artifical Neural and Fuzzy- Neural Networks to QRS Detection and PVC Diagnosis’, thesis submitted on 2006
[6]. Jason Waechter , ‘Introduction to ECG’s: Rhythm Analysis’ Last Revised July/2012.
[7]. Rod R. Seeley, Trent D. Stephens, ‘Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology’, 6th edition, Chapter number 12, ISBN: 0072943696, 2007.
[8]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrocardiography
[9]. John A. Bullinaria, ‘Applications of Multi-Layer Perceptrons: Introduction to Neural Networks’
Lecture 1, 2004
[10]. John A. Bullinaria, ‘Radial Basis Function Networks: Introduction to Neural Networks’ Lecture 12, 2004
[11]. John A. Bullinaria, ‘Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ) Introduction to Neural Computation’ Lecture 2, 2007.
[12]. Svenja Kutscher, ‘Algorithms for ECG Feature Extraction: an Overview’, M??lardalen University, School of Innovation, Design, and Technology
[13]. D Hayn, A Kollmann, G Schreier, ‘Automated QT Interval Measurement from Multi lead ECG Signals, Computers in Cardiology 2006, ISSN 0276’6547
[14]. Jaya Prakash Sahoo , ‘Analysis of ECG signal for Detection of Cardiac Arrhythmias’, Thesis Submitted 2011.
[15]. http://www.physionet.org
[16].Gary M. Friesen, Thomas C. Jannett, ‘A comparison of noise sensitivity of Nine QRS detection algorithms’, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering volume 37, January 1990.
[17]. Yun-Chi Yeha,c, Wen-June Wanga, ‘QRS complexes detection for ECG signal: The Difference
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