General Overview of the Topic
“Land-mines left in the ground after the cessation of hostilities are a significant threat to human life, social organization, and economic development throughout the world.” – John Heaphy, Defense Security Cooperation Agency
Residents living in post-conflict areas are not only subjected to the extensive, and often costly, rehabilitation and reconstruction processes, but in many cases, they are in danger of being injured or killed by remnants left behind by war and violence. One of the deadliest weapons that are left undetected after a conflict is land-mines. Land-mines are often deployed as a cost-effective, but deadly, weapon. In times of conflict, inhabitants are surrounded by threats posed by war, weaponry, and extended periods of maltreatment. However, even after times of violence, reported cases of injuries and deaths caused by unexploded ordnances (UXO) are distressingly frequent. UXOs pose a risk of detonation, sometimes even decades after they were employed. Hence, it is imperious that nations execute effective methods in mine clearance during conflict, rather than only after the violence has subsided.
Definition of Key Terms
Demining
Demining is the process of removing explosive land-mines from an area. There are two distinct versions of demining processes–military and humanitarian. Military mine clearance and removal refers to the act of removing mines from conflict regions and combat zones, while humanitarian clearance is done during times of peace and in post-conflict areas.
Minesweeping
Minesweeping is the detection of land-mines using various techniques such as using metal detectors or trained animals. Special mechanical clearance machines have also been developed to combine the detection and removal processes into one operation, effectively allowing clearance through large-scale detonation in specific areas.
Unexploded Ordnances (UXOs)
Also known as explosive remnants of war (ERWs), UXOs are explosive weapons, such as bombs, grenades, and land-mines, that are left undetected after a war. These may still detonate when disturbed, and are extremely dangerous when situated in local communities where civilians may be present.
Background to the Topic
History
Distinction between humanitarian and military demining
One important aspect of the topic is the distinction between humanitarian and military demining. Military mine clearance is a process undertaken by soldiers to clear a safe passage in order to advance during conflict, hence this process only clears mines that block strategic pathways required for the progression or retreat of soldiers in war. Limited casualties may still occur during the process, and therefore it is crucial to ensure safe and efficient removal of explosives. Unfortunately, this process leaves many undetected or unremoved land-mines in areas where civilians may be present, and still has the risk of detonation. For this reason, humanitarian mine clearance becomes very important in excavating areas where civilians live. Humanitarian mine clearance ensures that local residents can safely return home without the threat of land-mines and ERWs. The aim of humanitarian demining is to restore peace and security at a community level, rather than to gain an upper hand in times of war.
The processes not only have distinct settings and goals, but they vary in the application and execution. In military demining, methods predominantly function by detecting and removing in a single action, such as mechanical demining, carpet bombing, burning of the land, and using Bangalore torpedoes or mine-clearing line charges. Military demining, however, are used in circumstances that require quick removal rather than accuracy and exactness. On the other hand, humanitarian demining seeks to locate all present mines in a local area, so it follows that this process is more thorough and time-consuming. For this reason, humanitarian demining becomes extremely important and useful in the long-term prospects of clearing potentially hazardous areas. Commonly adopted techniques and routines in humanitarian demining include manual detection using metal detectors, detection using specially trained mine detection dogs, and mechanical clearance using armored vehicles fitted with flails, tiller or similar devices.
The complications and impacts of demining conduct
The United Nation Department of Human Affairs (UNDHA) approximates that there are “more than 100 million mines that are scattered across the world and pose significant hazards in more than 68 countries”. These ERWs not only endanger innocent civilians, but also deminers who attempt to remove these hazards. There remains a small chance of killing or injuring the demining staff, which further exemplifies the risks and complications of employing demining processes. Regardless, promotion of demining has become increasingly crucial in maintaining security at local levels. It is estimated that more than 800 persons are killed and 1,200 severely injured each month by landmines around the world.
Promoting demining in conflict areas is more beneficial in the long-term, and ensures the security of local innocents. Though demining may be a costly process, failure to remove hazardous explosives from areas may prove to be more financially debilitating in the future. Rehabilitation of land-mine victims is a costly process and requires immediate attention, as these victims may suffer from trauma from land-mine mishaps. By locating and removing land-mines as early as possible, these pose less a danger to the civilians in the local area and becomes less troublesome to relocate land-mines in the future. During times of conflict, the location of explosives may be more clearly mapped out than ten years later once the violence has subsided. Also, detection of a single mine may require deminers to further search the area for more possible ERWs, which is much more time-consuming and costly. The socio-economic impacts of promoting demining are very crucial. As more countries start implementing demining as a common procedure, the more secure and developed demining techniques would be.
Another problem that concerns the efficacy of demining is the current progress in developing techniques to accelerate the process. Not only is the process of demining dangerous for deminers, but the process is often seen as far too time-consuming for a “small project”. Current detection and removal processes under development include biological detection by using plants and animals, electromagnetic methods, nuclear detection, acoustic detection, and much more.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved and Their Positions
Vietnam and China
After the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979, the border along China and Vietnam has been plagued with leftover landmines from the conflict. The first two demining campaigns along this border were conducted from 1992 to 1994 and 1997 to 1999. Apart from this, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) also cleared mines for a boundary demarcation project from 2001 to 2008. The Chinese army has also promised to start a third landmine sweeping operation, expected to finish by 2017. On the other hand, Vietnam is neither a signatory to 1997 Mine Ban Treaty nor the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Land-mine contamination remains a serious problem in Bosnia and Herzegovina after the war in 1992 to 1995. As a result of the Bosnian War, which was a part of the breakup of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina has one of the most severe land-mine problems in the world. Bosnia and Herzegovina’s contamination with land-mines stems exclusively from the 1992–1995 war in the country, as a result of the extensive use of land-mines in combatting. By 1996, around two million land-mines and unexploded munitions littered Bosnia. By September 2013 land-mines and unexploded munitions remained scattered in 28,699 locations–a total of 2.4% of the country’s territory contaminated. Bosnia and Herzegovina’s strategic vision is to clear all land-mines by 2019, enlisting the help of various government agencies, NGOs, as well as NATO military units.
North and South Korea
The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) is notoriously known for its land-mine contamination and as one of the most fortified borders in the world, separating two countries that have technically remained at “war” since 1953, and spurring the laying of landmines across this border. The DMZ is the de facto border separating the two nations, and to the present day, there have been various incidents in and around the DMZ, with military and civilian casualties on both sides. One particularly conflicting facet of this conflict is that in 2014 the United States government exempted the Korean DMZ from its pledge to eliminate anti-personnel landmines, in order to continue to deter North Korean incursion. Tensions along the border have been raised after two South Korean officers were gravely injured by a landmine in August 2015. South Korea immediately blamed its North counterpart, who rejected these allegations but declared the country on a “war footing”.
Post-WWII nations
Although Germany is notorious for having committed massive war crimes, most notably the mass genocide of Jews, a lesser known fact is that Denmark forced more than 2,000 captive German soldiers to march through mine-fields in order to clear land-mines after the end of World War II (WWII). Known as Denmark’s “biggest war crime”, the event highlights the extensive use of explosives, land-mines, and other explosive weaponry that were employed during this large-scale war. For example, the German S-mine, also known as the “Bouncing Betty”, is the best-known version of a class of mines known as bounding mines deployed during this war. These mines inflicted heavy casualties and slowed, or even repelled, drives into German-held territory throughout the war and are considered one of the most definitive weapons during WWII. In some engagements during World War II, anti-tank mines accounted for half of all vehicles disabled.
Later on, the placing of land-mines without marking and recording them for later removal became considered as a war crime under Protocol II of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, an annex to the Geneva Conventions. Although as of now most post-WWII nations are largely land-mine free, these nations (i.e the United States, European nations, Japan, China, post-war African nations, etc.) have established a strong position in the issue of mine ban policies.
Colombia
Despite the recent declining trend in the number of ERW victims, Colombia ranked as the second most mine-affected country in the world in 2014, with 219 new victims reported in 2015. Particularly worrisome is the fact that it also has the second highest number of new child victims in the world. Colombia suffers from widespread suspected land-mine and ERW contamination due to more than fifty years of conflict involving criminal groups and non-state actors. The UNMAS is currently assisting the Colombian mine action authority in creating a 5-year mine action strategy so that Colombia can fulfill its obligations under the Ottawa Treaty.
Croatia
In the aftermath of the Croatian War of Independence, approximately 13,000 square kilometers (5,000 square miles) of the country was suspected of containing land-mines, an alarmingly high prevalence considering its landmass. In response, the Parliament of Croatia enacted the Demining Act of 1996, mandating the police and government-owned AKD Mungos with the objective of mine clearance. Since 1998, demining has been funded by the government and by donations from foreign contributors such as the United States, European Union, and Japan. In the same year, the Croatian Mine Action Centre (CROMAC) was established to oversee the development of “demining plans, projects, technical inspections, demining quality assurance, expert assistance, and the coordination of mine-clearance activities”. The demining process was primarily carried out by licensed Croatian companies, which employ demining professionals and personnel. By 2003, the entire territory of Croatia was reviewed, and the minefield area reduced to 1,174 square kilometers (453 square miles). Despite the improvement, the territory of the Republic of Croatia remains marked with 13.274 mine warning signs. As of 2013, the CROMAC has been allocated approximately 53 million euros a year for demining. An estimated further €500 million or more will be needed to remove all remaining land-mines from Croatia by 2019, the deadline for land-mine clearance set by the Ottawa Treaty.
United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS)
The UNMAS is located in the United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO), and primarily manages mine action coordination centers in mine-affected countries, plans and manages operations, and develops mine-action programs in the countries and territories it serves. Its most prominent operations include ones in Colombia, Somalia, Libya, Sudan, and Croatia. For example, since 2010 the UNMAS has assisted the Colombian Government to develop an effective framework to manage the humanitarian mine action sector. The UNMAS was consequently requested to lead the disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) related matters in Colombia.
Timeline of Event
1992 – The International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) is established
March 1994 – UNICEF Director Jim Grant calls for a landmine ban
March 1995 – Belgium becomes the first country to pass a national law banning landmines
1996 – Canada launches the Ottawa process to ban landmines
March 1999 – The Ottawa Treaty becomes binding international law
March 2003 – The first stockpile destruction deadlines are met
December 2005 – China votes in favor of the annual pro-ban UN General
Assembly resolution supporting the Ottawa Treaty
November 2008 – At the Ninth Meeting of States Parties to the Mine Ban Treaty (the Ottawa Treaty) in Geneva, the ICBL provides commentaries on the first fifteen state-parties that have requested extensions to their ten-year mine clearance deadlines. The Landmine Monitor Report 2008 is also released.
January 2012 – Finland accedes to the Ottawa Treaty, committing to destroy its stockpiled
land-mines by 2016
Important, Relevant Documents
The Ottawa Treaty
The International Mine Action Standards
Report of the Secretary General on Assistance in Mine Action (A/66/292)
United Nations General Assembly Resolution (A/RES/66/29)
The Landmine Monitor Report
Previous Attempted Solutions: Analysis of Their Failure/Success
UNMAS
The UNMAS is most notably successful in Afghanistan and Nepal. Intended to be a service that develops, plans, and manages operations in regional mine clearance, the UNMAS receives its funding from various NGOs and countries such as the United States and Japan. Very few programs can claim success stories in Afghanistan, however, the UNMAS and the Mine Action Programme of Afghanistan (MAPA) can. The Afghan humanitarian landscape has been characterized by an unstable government, corruption,
and insecurity, which have made it a particularly challenging environment in which to operate. With an average of 39 victims of mines and ERWs per month, more than 1,630 affected communities and an estimated 2.7% prevalence rate of mine survivors in the population, Afghanistan remains the country the most affected by mines and ERWs in the world. The UNMAS and Mine Action Coordination Centre Afghanistan (MACCA), in which the UNMAS created and coordinated, worked to adjust the MAPA over a period of six years to adjust to the ever-changing conditions in Afghanistan, making it one of the few success stories in the country. One major impact the UNMAS has had in this region was a series of reforms in the functioning of MACCA and the MAPA that decreased the price of demining per square meter and overall budget allocated to coordination. The efficiency of the MAPA was also enhanced by the constant training and capacity-building of mine clearance staff, marking an impressive level of technical expertise and coordination capacity.
Similarly, Nepal was a country subjected to a decade of constant fighting and violence. Consequently, the signing of the 2006 Comprehensive Peace Agreement initiated mine clearance in the region, and by December 2009, all explosives in the Maoist cantonment sites had been eliminated.
However, the UNMAS has its limitations. The organization has found itself often in need of more funding, resulting in constant revising of mine action projects in order to adjust to a dwindling budget. Despite its successes, the UNMAS is in a paradoxical situation where its objectives to assist countries in meeting the requirements and deadlines of the Ottawa Treaty are often limited by their lack of funds and resource allocation.
The Ottawa Treaty
The Ottawa Treaty, or the Mine Ban Treaty of 1997, is one of the most significant steps in promoting demining. It is successful in regards to the fact that all signatory that have signed and ratified the treaty must cease the production and development of anti-personnel mines. To this day the treaty has been fairly successful in its effort to clear mines within the designated time period, with 29 countries declared free of mines as of 2015. Furthermore, some countries such as the United States though did not sign the treaty did agree to its terms, however, decided to not comply in situations such as areas near the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), believing that landmines are crucial for defense.
However, this treaty was not met without criticisms. As many countries such as the United States, China, India, Russia, Israel and Iran still possess huge stockpiles of these mines. Moreover, some signatory countries such as Finland and Ukraine has proposed that they will withdraw from the treaty due to military necessity to deter a potential invasion force. Furthermore, the treaty does not cover cluster bombs which would prove to be a hazard if it becomes unexploded ordinance for civilians in post-conflict zones. The treaty only covers Anti-Personnel mines and does not address the use of mixed mines, anti-vehicle claymore mines, and anti-handling devices, which could also potentially harm civilians. On a larger scale, little progress has been done to reduce mine usage. Since as of 2011 landmine usage has been higher than that of 2004 in conflict-plagued countries such as Israel, Libya, Syria, and Myanmar.