The advancement of technology and changes in social interaction are enhancing the complexity of modern warfare. Although planning and organization are becoming increasingly useful, forces have to deal with unknown and unforeseen activities on the battleground. The assertion that current military training should focus on the preparation for unpredictable fails to acknowledge that pre-planned drills lead to embracement of uniformity in the learning environment. As a result, different societies and countries acquire similar techniques for conducting military operations. Meanwhile, each military commander is under extreme duress to make the right decision at the right time. It is evident that poor or untimely decision is disastrous to the national strategic goals and human lives. Therefore, commanders have to learn the art of balance through the application of Mission Commands. The phenomenon promotes embracement of disciplined initiatives through the execution of unified land operations. This paper assesses the use of mission command by General H. Norman Schwarzkopf in the Battle of Khafji that led to the victory of the American forces against the Iraqi military annexing the deserted City of Al Khafji, Saudi Arabia. General Schwarzkopf exhibited significant application of Mission Commands in the provision of leadership to the Coalition forces liberating Al Khafji from the occupation by the Iraqi troops.
Battle of Khafji (Desert Storm)
On 2 August 1990, the Iraqi Army successfully annexed the emirates of Kuwait. President Saddam Hussein supported the seizure by indicating that Kuwait was now the 19th province of Iraq. He had previously expressed dissatisfaction with the borders created by the British in the 20th century. The invasion was an organized political game that sought to humiliate the West. The Iraqi government employed massive military personnel and resources in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations (KTO). According to William, the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) estimated the operation involved approximately 500,000 troops, 3,000 artilleries, 2,500 armored vehicles and 4,000 tanks. The successful annexation of Kuwait threatened the premier oil-producing region in the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. It was evident that Iraqi forces could attack and seize the oil fields with no warning. The propagation of attack against the Gulf ports was a threat to the survival of Saudi Arabia and gave President Saddam unrivaled control of 40% of the global oil reserves. The move would provide an addition of 20% of global oil reserve to the 20% he already controlled in Iraq and Kuwait.
Some days after the capture of Kuwait, Saudi and American officials met to assess the situation. The meeting surmised that an urgent response was critical to thwarting escalation of Iraqi’s aggression against its neighbors. Subsequently, the American assembled a coalition force to counter the build-up of the Iraqi military in foreign lands. The operation attracted about 50 countries with 38 of them contributing ground, sea or air forces. Collectively, the army had approximately 200,000 troops, 1,200 tanks, 750 aircraft and 60 warships. The coalition comprised of Western and Arab nations aiming at ejecting out the Iraqi aggressors in Kuwait and restoring the legitimate government. General H. Norman Schwarzkopf commanded the Western and non-Islamic forces. He was also responsible for maintaining and motivating the fragile coalition. However, the need to inspire Arab military necessitated the creation of parallel centers of command. General Khaled bin Sultan bin Saud commanded the Joint Forces Command comprising Islamic members, such as Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Syria.
In August 1990, General Khaled bin Sultan ordered the evacuation of residents from the city of Al Khafji, located approximately seven miles from the southern Saudi-Kuwait border. It was difficult to defend the town due to the extensive salt marshes in the north and its closeness to the international boundary. The salt marshes are soft underneath making it difficult for heavy vehicles used in military operations to move with ease. However, the town had substantial infrastructural development including a small airstrip, pier, oil refinery and water desalination plant. On the night of 29 January 1991, the mechanized Iraqi armor infantry attacked Arab Joint Forces Command-East and the American Marine Forces, Central Command (MARCENT) in the east and south Kuwait. The attack led to the capture of the deserted City of Al Khafji, Saudi Arabia. The offensive aggression continued until 1 February 1991. It became the Battle of Khafji (Desert Storm) fought to recapture the annexed Saudi city. Collectively, it had a series of engagement between US-led anti-Iraq coalition and Iraqi forces on the ground.
Commander General Schwarzkopf’s Role
General Schwarzkopf believed that Iraq planned a defensive war. The likelihood of offensive engagement was minimal. As a result, General Schwarzkopf moved VII Corps and XVIII Airborne Corps to the west to launch a sweeping attack on Iraq. He supported the abandonment of Al Khafji that was strategically unimportant and tactically indefensible. In the Gulf War entirety, the Battle of Khafji was relatively small and had inconsequential attack considering it involved an abandoned town. However, it provided the defining moment in the Operation Desert Storm. It exhibits the major Iraqi offensive aggression apart from Scud attacks in the war. The battle presents the impotence of the army to defend themselves against the coalition’s airpower. King Fahd of Saudi Arabia perceived the whole of the country as a holy place thereby pressurizing the planners to retake Al Khafji or destroy it immediately. Consequently, the abandoned city had great significance to the Saudi government and military plans of the coalition forces.
Battle of Khafji was an emblem of tactical surprise in the modern warfare. General Schwarzkopf’s organization and coordination of attacks and defense provided a devastating defeat to the Iraqi army. He furnished defensive and offensive support to the ground combat by isolating the battlefield with airpower. The strategy weakened the enemy’s ability through the prevention of reinforcement. The culmination of the battle stopped the coordination of the three Iraqi division by forcing two of them to retreat from resultant disarray. The coalition forces recovered the lost territory and destroyed more than 600 enemy vehicles. Grant reported that the first Mechanized, third Armored, and fifth Mechanized divisions had five kill boxes before the offensive attack on Khafji. However, the Gulf War Airpower Survey found that coalition aircraft completed flew 267 sorties within 72 hours in all the kill boxes. The raids accounted for only 17% of the sorties flown in the three days. Therefore, the outcomes of the Battle of Khafji involve airpower as the decisive element.
General Schwarzkopf Mission Command Principles
Accept Prudent Risk
The willingness to acknowledge weakness is the foundation for success. The acceptance of prudent risks illustrate outcomes of higher worth. General Schwarzkopf was aware that the Iraqi annexation of Kuwait was a threat to global peace. Although the Gulf War would expose the Americans and other members of coalition forces to substantial costs, peace in the Middle East was critical. General Schwarzkopf was not willing to underestimate the capability of the enemy by limiting the deployment of resources. He utilized a large number of U.S. Navy Sea, Air, and Land (SEAL), Army Special Forces and Marine reconnaissance as a willingness to accept the prudent risks.
Build Cohesive Teams through Mutual Trust
The formulation of teams requires sharing of confidence among commanders, partners, and subordinates. The development of mutual trust is a long-term process that entails gradual development. It facilitates the exercising leadership and upholding of Army values while articulating Army leadership principles. Therefore, confidence must emanate from integrity, personal example, professional competence, training and successful mutual experiences from the commander. Gen. Schwarzkopf commanded the Coalition forces from 35 countries. He shared the command with General Khaled bin Sultan who was responsible for the Arab Joint Forces. Consequently, he occasionally left General Khaled bin Sultan to organize, plan and execute operations while providing support. For instance, the Arab forces coordinated ground combat in Khafji with the American troops providing airstrikes.
Provide a Clear Commander’s Intent
The commander communicates a clear message that conveys the intent of the operation. It harmonizes support from the subordinates by expressing their role in the attainment of the mission objectives. The higher commander’s intent is the foundation of unity through the articulation of the reason for the operation. It provides the basis upon which staff and subordinates develop insight and understanding of the purpose of the mission. General Schwarzkopf gave a clear intent to his team when he asked them to assemble in Riyadh. He explained how to recapture Khafji from Iraqi forces. He planned and set time for the attacks for the attainment of cohesiveness and adherence to mission order.
Creating Mutual Understanding
Mutual understanding is the foundation for trust and unity of effort. The primary challenge in military operations is the establishment of mutual understanding on the problem, purpose and operational environment across the unified action partners, staff and commanders. Therefore, the commander continually plans, prepares, execute and assesses operation to build and maintain a positive relationship during operations. The use of red teams lets the commander understand alternative perspectives while formulating plans and brings mutual understanding. Commander General Schwarzkopf understood the dependence of mission success on the ability of the teams within the coalition to work towards a common mutual goal. He created a mutual understanding among all the members through regular briefings and instructions. He engaged in dialogue with subordinates heading different operational units and General Khaled bin Sultan.
Effects of General Schwarzkopf Mission Command
General Schwarzkopf’s effective utilization of the Mission command in the Battle of Khafji led to success for the coalition forces led by the United States. The troops attained considerable success within 48 hours of the occupation of Al Khafji by the Iraqi army. The prevention of the reinforcement of the control resulted in the surrender of Iraqi forces in Khafji and the recapture of the city in two days. The failure to conquer the Iraq aggression would have been fatal for the Gulf War. The capture of oil, port, water and industrial facilities was an excellent source of bargaining power in the annexation of Kuwait.
The utilization of the Mission Command provided a force that bound troops from different countries together. General Schwarzkopf commanded the entire operation leading to coherence and coordination in the attacks and defense. The ground combat provided by Qatari troops was responsible for recapturing the city under the cover provided by the American airstrikes that restrained reinforcement.
Significances of the Battle
President Saddam sought to capture al-Khafji, Ras Tanurah, al-Jubayl, al-Manifah and al-Mishab to political mileage. The resultant economic and political demotivation of the Saudi regime would have been the motivation for the support of Kuwait annexation. Therefore, the Battle of Khafji was a critical event for preventing the escalation of Iraqi aggression against the neighbors. It stopped the accumulation of support in the Middle East through sabotage. For instance, Saudi Arabia would be willing to expel the coalition forces on the promise of withdrawal of Iraqi troops from its territory.
The Battle of Khafji illustrated the critical role of planning in war. It was evident that without coordinated and prepared forces, the American-led coalition was vulnerable to imminent failure. Again, the use of different military assortment was critical to the attainment of success. General Schwarzkopf would have been unsuccessful without one military division. The Iraqi forces aimed at instilling fear amongst the Middle East countries. The strategy was the primary source of its advantage in the military confrontation.
General Schwarzkopf’s application of Mission Command principles in the Battle of Khafji emphasizes the need for planning, organization, coordination, trust, and cooperation. Although each battle is unique, it is essential to embrace rapid response, continuous training, active mission command and unfading morale to achieve success. General Schwarzkopf illustrates the need to contain prudent risks with overestimated use of power and resources for the reduction of imminent loss.