The late nineteenth and twentieth century are usually associated with a number of -isms defined as “A distinctive practice, system, or philosophy, typically a political ideology or an artistic movement”. While each -isms is a unique entity they are viewed through several different mediums, such as politics, art, music, dance, literature, and philosophy, each interpreting the doctrine of the -ism and its characteristics differently. Although varying interpretations of -isms exist, ideas between mediums tend to cross pollination. As -isms embedded themselves into the fine arts, the prosperity and advancement of one artform often influenced the creation or elaboration of another. This growth and influence was particularly apparent from the inception of these trends in the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth century, just prior to the second world war.
Among these, art and literary movements reigned supreme, influencing the advancement of music in their wake. During this juncture music began pushing the barriers of formation and perception, in turn questioning the definition of music itself. While many genres exemplify various -isms one of the most beautiful and subtle is art song, idyllically melding art and literature to serve as an -ism in itself, as well as a platform for other musical genres and artistic mediums. In this essay I intend on looking at the relationships between the mediums of art and literature and music between 1857 and 1958, their influences on the progression of the other mediums and their lasting impacts on society. namely early modernism, impressionism, surrealism, primitivism, and realism through the vocal works of Richard Wagner, Ottorino Respighi, Francis Poulenc, Harry Thacker Burleigh, Margaret Bonds, and Florence Price. Through the course of the essay we will look at the relation of art and literature to music and vise versa, their influences on the progression of these art forms, and the lasting impacts they hold on society.
The catch-all -ism for most of the late nineteenth and twentieth century is modernism, “a mode of expression or practice characteristics of modern times.” Although vague in description modernism worked against the traditional practices of the times, specifically tonality in music, form in art, and structure in literature. In this capacity Richard Wagner can be personified as a modern innovator who expanded the boundaries of aesthetic beauty and tonal complexity of music, leaving a lasting impact that influenced many composers during his lifetime and after his death. The birth of modernism is commonly associated with Wagner and his opera Tristan und Isolde, one of his most compelling and musically complex music dramas. The opening chord, commonly referred to as the Tristian chord, sparked controversy over the expansion of tonality due to varying questions of harmonic labeling due to its resolution that rests on the brink of atonality. During the latter half of the nineteenth century we find Wagner’s philosophies on life were greatly influenced by Arthur Schopenhauer, and his writings. Schopenhauer’s book The World as Will and Idea focused on the conception that human will is the force which governs us to live, and is the source of our joy or dismay. These philosophies which can be seen in Wagner’s work though the continuous chromaticism, tonicization by half step, prolonged dissonance before resolution, blurring the boundaries of traditional tonality. In 1849 Wagner wrote Art and Revolution and The Art-work of the Future, which mention Gesamtkunstwerk, or the combining of many art forms . These conceptions would later lead to his essay Opera and Drama in 1852, which stressed the melding of the fine arts within several different realms of modernity under one aesthetically pleasing medium, all given equal importance.
Many scholars including John Deathridge, Sherri Moore Weiler, Chris Walton, and Peter Bloom find direct influences between the creation of Tristan und Isolde and the Wesendonck Lieder. Wagner began working on both the Wesendonck Lieder and Tristan und Isolde in 1857, using the song cycle as a musical study for the opera. The most prominent motifs shared between works include the arpeggiations from the transfiguration scene, the Schickalsthema theme, the Act III prelude, the warrior horns of King Mark in Act I, the love theme, and quotations of the Act II love duet (Appendix 1).
Although it is not believed that these songs were originally meant to be a cycle many characteristics unify these songs, including motivic material, tonality, and text. There are two prominent motivic themes that appear continuously throughout the five songs. The first is a cadential theme found at first and third prominent cadences in Der Engel, once in Im Treibhaus before a dramatic dynamic shift and musical juxtaposition in the piano, and several times throughout Schmerzen at both half cadences and perfect authentic cadences, thus solidifying any questionable tonality (Appendix 2). The second is the use of the appoggiatura motif, which is seen throughout all five songs, textually emphasizing key words or phrases, most prominently in Schmerzen and Träume (Appendix 3). This musical emphasis used in the appoggiatura creates a yearning, representing the ‘will’ Schopenhauer alluded to in his writings.
The songs in the cycle are tonally connected, through dominant, V of V, and an atypical median relationship. Der Engel begins the set in G major and moves to via V-I relationship to C minor in Stehe still. Stehe still ends in the key of C major and moves to the V of V, D minor in Im Treibhaus. The tonality shifts back to C minor in Schmertzen, again ending in the parallel key of C major. Träume is the unusual case, which moves to A flat major, however this movement can be justified in one of two ways, the final cadence of the vocal line ending in A flat major and the parallel minor of C major, C minor, is the relative key of A flat major. The tonal connections between songs also take on a modern connotation by ending in a different key than the song began and by trailing through a series of chromatic modulations over the course of one song. While some of the transitions from the original ordering of songs are more tonally acceptable, for example Träume before Schmerzen whose transition from A flat major to C minor would have been more coherent, the need for this change lies in the textual relation to the music in order to keep a consistent narrative.
The creation of this song cycle was directly influenced by Wagner’s poet and lover, Mathilde Wesendonck. Wagner composed the songs in the order he received the poetry; they were written Der Engel, Träume, Schmerzen, Stehe Still, and Im Treibhaus. It is reasonable to believe that he reworked the poems in hopes of getting the work published as a coherent cycle, reordering the poetry to demonstrate the narrator’s etherical happiness at both the beginning the end of the cycle, in Der Engel and Träume, while keeping the most tormented piece, Im Treibhaus, directly in the middle. This way of organizing the music helps display narrative contrast while demonstrating highly effective continuity; an individual who has found their angel, and although tormented with the inability to have them, they find solace within their dreams. This is a direct reflection of Wagner’s relationship with Mathilde, both of them married, and yet enamored with each other. The poetry has been linked by many scholars, including Weiler and Miller, to the philosophies of Aruthur Schopenhauer, and although the poetry was not written by Wagner, his muse was an integral part of his emotional desire and happiness, or ‘will,’ which was intern part who he was at the time of the cycle’s composition.
The cycle was composed over five months and was first performed by mezzo soprano Emilie Genast and pianist Hans von Bülow in July of 1862. The song cycle was written for voice and piano, although in December of 1857 Wagner orchestrated Träume for chamber ensemble and solo violin. The other four pieces were later orchestrated by Franz Mottl, and again by Hans Werner Henze, leading to the sets enduring popularity. Shortly after the composition of this work we found a flux in Wagner’s essay writings on the conceptions of music in 1879, including On Poetry and Composition, On Operatic Poetry and Composition in Particular, and On the Application of Music to the Drama, which all stressed the melding of the arts . Thus the Wesendonck lieder, through its creative process, can be used as a catalyst for the perpetuation of interdisciplinary collaboration within the arts, giving each facet an equal voice in the cycle. In the Wesendonck lieder Wagner pushes the boundaries of transitional tonality while melding the philosophies of Schopenhauer embedded within the text of Mathilde Wesndonck, allowing the text to guide the structure of the set, thus impacting its musical makeup. This intention of melding the arts took form in impressionism, considered the “first -fruits of this newly consummated union between music and the other arts.”
Rooting itself in art, impressionism was “a movement in the late 19th century in French painting, characterized by the goal of reproducing an impression of a subject by use of reflected light and color and the blurring of outlines.” Originally, the term impressionism was viewed as an insult, coined by the art critic Louis Leroy in his depiction of Claude Monet’s Le Charivari, for “wallpaper in its raw state is more carefully put together than this sea of paint.” Wagner was one of the primary composers at the birth of impressionism, which began in the late 1860’s, commonly connecting him with impressionism. Many famous modern artists come from the impressionistic era, including Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, Pierre-Aguste Renoir, Edouard Manet, and Paul Cézanne, each artist moving away from the traditional forms of realism into the realm of abstract art. The first documented instance of impressionism being used to describe music was in a discussion between Renoir and Wagner about the music of French composer Emmanuel Chabrier. Impressionism was thriving in France, especially in the mélodie of Claude Debussy, who used the work of both impressionistic artists and writers to influence his work, including Mallermé, Boudelaire, Verlaine, and Maeterlinck.
While impressionism flourished in France it would not remain there for long. At the beginning of the 20th century Claude Debussy’s work was well known in Italy, influencing many of their composers, including orchestral composer Ottorino Respighi. Respighi, famous for his tone poems Pini di Roma and Fontane di Roma, also took to creating Italian art songs.
To know Respighi’s songs is to know much of him because they represent the world to which he retreated to confide the secrets he kept locked in his heart during everyday life and where he allowed his soul to sing freely. A form of escapism, one might say, enabling him to express freely a state of mind, a feeling, a sensation, in a few pages of music and releasing him for a few moments.
Schopenhauer’s willful ideals carry into the conceptions of Respighi’s art songs, and like Wagner needed poetry which the composer could empathize with whilst meeting the criteria of impressionistic poetry. Impressionism within poetry was based on the sensation gained from instantaneous perception, most commonly the perception of an impressionistic work of art, writing which mimicked the painting technique of the impressionists, or depictions of a sensorial perception. We should not be surprised that Respighi set some of the works of Ada Negri, the “Joan of Arc to the poor,” whom depicted the voice of the oppressed lower class and their struggles never before spoken. While most of her poetry focuses on the struggles of her life growing up impoverished, she paints vivid depictions of the world surrounding her.
All three of Respighi’s songs set to Negri’s text, Nebbie, Nevicata, and Notte, infer some type of sensory depiction through their title. Respighi’s art songs display the subtle formation of the images through the use of text painting in the piano, allowing the vocal line complete freedom. His most famous art song, Nebbie, was composed during a time of depression; originally set without text the piece embodied the composer’s emotional state. Shortly after the composition he was introduced to the poems of Ada Negri, and after reading her poem Nebbie he went to go set it to the composition, finding it needed no alteration, for the impression of the weighing fog entwined with the emotional distress of the narrator melded perfectly. The prolongation of the F minor chord in the piano with additional chromatic ascending and descending notes represent the mist eerily creeping in and out of the dark valley (Appendix 4). Nevicata maintains a calm disposition through the use of lightly descending sixteenth notes in the piano accompaniment and the smooth consistency of the vocal line. The most apparent use of impressionism is in his song Notte, the piano gently rocking the voice in a lullaby, as the world falls silent in the evening.
Respighi’s songs often represent a return to old style of Italian art song, popular among many composers at the turn of the century including Tosti and Donaudy. This return focused on bel canto tradition that allowed complete freedom in the vocal line and most commonly consisting of ABA and strophic forms. None of Respighi’s songs are written in cycles, not bound to each other textually or musically, but were published in groups. When looking at performance practice for Respighi’s songs they are commonly col canto, which leads to varying tempos, which according to his wife Elsa was a common occurrence that rested well with him.
Respighi has some very personal views on the interpretation of music. He held that a performer, though not playing exactly what the composer indicated, can sometimes enhance a work and obtain effects unforeseen by the composer himself. He nearly always found it inadvisable to tell an artist to modify his interpretation, since if the latter did not feel the tempo as the composer intended, an accelerando or a rallentando would only deprive his performance of conviction.
This also recollects Wagner’s gesamtkuntswerk, allowing the performed an equal voice in the performance process. The impressionism of Respighi, although simple in presentation, is powerful in its sensorial depictions of nouns that resonate with our human experiences. There were many movements after impressionism that reinforced concepts of emotion and sight, including expressionism, symbolism, and fauvism. In the 1920’s a new conception of art as an illusion of our innermost thoughts though depictions of a dreamscape. This was known as surrealism, “a controversial movement in art and literature between the two World Wars in which the artist attempted to portray, express, or interpret the workings of the subconscious mind; in painting it found expression in two techniques, the naturalistic (Dali) and the abstract (Miró).”
One of the most prominent leaders of the Surrealistic movement was André Brenton, a French writer and physician whose ideas on the subconscious, greatly influenced by Sigmund’s Freud conception of dream analysis and the psychiatric patients he tended to during and after World War I, lead him to pen the Manifesto of Surrealism in 1924. To Brenton, positivism and rationalism were to deeply imbedded in western culture, believeing we should turn instead to our subconscious, free of rational or logic, to reflect on our realities. At the end of his manifesto Brenton gives the official definition of surrealism.
Surrealism, n. Phychic automatism in its pure state, by which one proposes to express-verbally, by means of written word, or in any other manner-the actual functioning of thought. Dictated by thought in the absence of any control exercised by reason, exempt from any aesthetic or moral concern…Surrealism is based on the belief in the superior reality of certain forms of previously neglected associations, in the omnipotence of dreams, in the disinterested pay of thought. It tends to ruin once and for all all other psychic mechanisms and to substitute itself for them in solving all the principal problems of life…
One of the biggest advocates for surrealism was composer Francis Poulenc, however André Brenton was not a very influential muse. Instead Poulenc most frequently set the poetry of Guillaume Apollinaire and Paul Éluard, both active members of the surrealistic movement, and also occasionally called upon Louis Argon and Max Jacob. Poulenc took great pride in the poetry he set, rereading the juxtaposed, surreal text multiple times to ensure that he was placing the right stress and inflection of the words into his compositions. The surrealistic poetry set by Poulenc is usually separated into two separate camps, those following the style of Guillame Apollinare which were “short and lacked innate lyricism,” common in his early years, and the works for Paul Éluard which were “obscure,” like much poetry following 1936. Although Poulenc was an avid lover of surrealistic poetry, he did not consider himself a surrealist, because as a musician “there was no room” among the writers.
His set Le Travail du Pientre with poetry by Paul Éluard composed in the 1950’s focused on the modern painters during the Années folles era in Paris. In 1916, that Poulenc met Éluard along with André Brenton and Louis Aragon at Adrienne Monnier’s bookshop in Paris, a popular hangout among both writers and painters of the time. Monnier believed that you must hear a writer read to their work to truly understand its complexities, which may be the reason Poulenc most commonly used the poetry of modern poets whom recited their work in her bookstore. In his early years Poulenc did not believe that he was capable of setting Éluard’s poems, but as the two began to rekindle their friendship in the years following 1936 he mustered the courage. Poulenc has admitted in the interviews contained in Mes Amis et Moi that Éluard is his favorite poet.
Poulenc asked Éluard to write him a collection of poetry to “paint musically,” using the work of the modern painters, of which Éluard chose Pablo Picasso, Marc Chagall, Georges Braque, Juan Gris, Paul Klee, Joan Miró, and Jacques Villon. Éluard’s completed the text for this set just before his death in 1952. He does use the surrealistic painter Joan Miró, the vast majority of painters in the cycle are mainly cubists. Cubism was “a movement in 20th century painting in which several planes of an object in the form of cubes or other solids are presented in an arbitrary arrangement using a narrow range of colors or monochrome.” Often cubism, much like impressionism, was viewed as a spring board for the other art forms that followed, namely futurism, Dadaism, and surrealism. Cubism sought to reassemble and juxtapose fragments of a depiction, allowing an image to be viewed in multiple ways, thus a precursor to surrealism through a deeper awareness of what is in front of us by examining ourselves subliminally. Unlike the works of impressionistic composers who painted their perception of an image Poulenc intend his listeners to feel as if there were in the realm where the song takes place, to see, touch, smell, hear, and taste the surreal experiences within his compositions.
His compositional process was also atypical, often reading and separating the disjunct pieces of poetry into smaller groupings, writing down and composing segments out of order, often in different keys, and then splice them together to make a mélodie. This maybe one of the reasons for his frequent modulations and use of chromaticism or the obscurely woven melodies. The vast majority of mélodies tend to be through composed with various changes in meter due to the setting of the poetry or desire for musical emphasis, leaving phrases of varying lengths throughout his mélodies. Being a pianist himself, Poulenc took great care in the complexity of the piano and its partnership with the voice. The piano and voice often hold their own independent lines, melding together into complex harmonies, taking turns as melody, counter melody, and accompaniment.
Le Travail du Pientre, much like the Wesendonck Lieder, was used as a musical study for his opera Dialogues des Carmélites, with the most apparent case being segments from Pablo Picasso supplemented into the themes of Mother Marie (Appendix 7, 8, 9 and 10). Poulenc does have a returning theme, an ascending line first appearing in minor and then rising to major, found in Pablo Picasso, Juan Gris, and Jacques Villon (Appendix 11). While there are some instances of text painting like the bird in the prelude of Georges Braque or the country dance sensation in Marc Chagall most intances of text painting are more subtle (Appendix 12). For example in Joan Miró we have an ambiguous sense of tonality in the line “Lui donnet des forms precise” (give him a form precise) until the word precise, which tonicizes a B minor chord (Appendix 13). This vague movement around a tonal center does create a dream like sequence. These realistic visions in the music work to embody the internal reflection Brenton spoke of in his manifesto while resembling the ambiguous forms found in cubism and many surrealistic works of art.
While movement away from the realistic and rational thrived in Europe across the sea a return to reality and tradition was forming in Harlem, New York. The Harlem Renaissance or New Negro Movement “was a cultural and psychological watershed, an era in which black people were perceived as having finally liberated themselves from a past fraught with self-doubt and surrendered instead to an unprecedented optimism, a novel pride in all things black and a cultural confidence that stretched beyond the borders of Harlem to other black communities in the Western world.” This rebirth was a spiritual reflection on both the past and present, away from the stereotypical depictions of African Americans and the formation of the ‘new negro.’ Music and Literature were the most prominent art forms during this era, but art also make an impact though its two primary art forms, those resembling primitivism, by Aaron Douglas, Loïs Mailou Jones, and Richmond Barthé, and a return to realism, found in the works of Palmer C. Hayden, Archibald J. Motlley Jr. Winold Reiss, and Edward Burra. Primitivism has been defined in one of two ways, as “the self-conscious return, or inspiration, to the archaic forms produced by non-Western cultures,” and as “the practice of painting in a way alien to academic or traditional techniques often displaying a highly individual naiveté in interpretation and treatment of subjects.” Realism, or Naturalism, on the other hand “stressed the common rather than the individual characteristics as the basis of reality.”
In Alain Locke’s The New Negro, the manifesto to the Harlem Renaissance, both art forms are represented. In his introduction Locke calls for a reassessment of the “Old Negro,” the African Americans that fit a stereotypical mold rather than a true representation of their origins and demeanor. Primitivism allowed African Americans to rewrite this history, telling their story oftheir people, removing the prejudice placed by white America. Locke also called for the “Young Negro” or “New Negro,” whom created a thriving culture of African American intellectuals and artists, telling the current story of Africans in America. The return to realism was the best way to ensure a positivist representation of the African American culture. While it may have been difficult to rewrite the past and dominate their contemporary portrayal of the culture both were necessary to break the conventional views of their society.
However, implementing these new ground-breaking perspectives on African American culture was much easier said than done. Many African American composers and poets at the time, whom were reliant on the patronage of white society, were asked to follow the musical precedent of African primitive stereotypes, often meaning their music and poetry would not sell without these qualities. Langston Hughes in his essay The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain, had come to find the African Americans were the biggest oppressors of their cultural progression through suppression of black values in order to appear more white. To counteract this Hughes advocated for the two genres of song that he believed best depicted the oppression of black culture, spirituals which were “group songs” and the blues which were “songs you sing alone.” Through his poetry Hughes was able to depict both genres through his choice in linguistics and prose, but was able to insert ideas of ‘primitivism’ and ‘realism’ into his work.
Three pieces that display Hughes poetry in these varying formats include Florence Price’s Feet O’ Jesus, H.T. Burleigh’s Lovely, Dark, and Lonely One, and the Margret Bond’s The Negro Speaks of Rivers. H.T. Burleigh was most commonly known for his spiritual. Burleigh was a student of Anton Dvořák, who was a large advocate for African American folk music, stressing the importance of carrying on the tradition of the African American spiritual. While Dvořák used the spirituals he learned from Burleigh to influence his music, Burleigh was influenced by Dvořák’s lush romanticism, for example his composition Lovely, Dark and Lonely One. The text was from Hughes’ poem entitled Song, which had a simple rhyme scheme and effective juxtaposition, such as the words dark and night with sun and light to heighten rhetoric of black oppression. Burleigh uses this juxtaposition by making the hopeful, ‘light’ verses on the beat and syncopating the ‘dark’ segments, a common attribute of African music, on the dark verses. Burleigh also uses the dynamics and chromaticism to heighten this contrast, giving the ‘light’ a calm diatonic disposition ranging from piano to mezzo forte, and the ‘dark’ segments oppressed stark chromaticism and declamatory statements in forte.
We also do see modern adaptations of traditional spiritual forms during this time. Florence Price, although largely known for her symphonic works, wrote many powerful pseudo-spirituals, which include one set to Hughes’ poem Feet O’ Jesus. In this poem Hughes linguistically mimics African American vernacular and holds to the common spiritual themes of that time, namely religion and freedom. Although written like a traditional spiritual there are some additional influences including a pentatonic vocal line and gospel grace notes. The poem also mimics an eight-bar blues line due to the ABCB rhyme scheme. Her spiritual references traditional musical ideals in a new format with modern text, melding the ideas of the ‘old negro’ with the ‘new negro.’
Finally, Margret Bonds tackles one of Langston Hughes most influential poems, The Negro Speaks of Rivers, which takes on W.E.B du Bois definition of a sorrow song in his book The Souls of Black Folk, as a languishing song depicting the oppression of yesteryear. This poem uses the term ‘river’ as a metaphor for the life of Africans, represented by the returning first four measure theme, always steady and constant (Appendix14). Throughout the song, the poem references happy origins in the Congo, the oppression of slavery in Egypt, and the freedom after the civil war, all which have deepened the life and history of the African people. The river motif appears in between all sections but one, muddled between the raising of the pyramids and the singing of the Mississippi, which instead relays a series of clashing chords, which can easily resemble the enslavement of Africans in America, rather than Egypt, and the conflict, of the civil war, leading to their freedom.
Music, art, and literature played a large part in the shaping our sociocultural identity through the various -isms of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. It was a time of great reflection, as we began to review ourselves physically, emotionally, and subconsciously, where we have been and where we are going. The changing perspectives within all societies allowed for growth and unity within the fine arts, one area pulling from the strengths of the others to build itself up, intern strengthening the others. Often the creation of one -ism would often branch off leading to the creation of another. Through the modernism of Wagner, the impressionism of Respighi, the surrealism of Poulenc, and the primitivism and realism found in the works of Burleigh, Bonds, and Price we are able to reflect upon an era of progress. Each left a lasting impact, not only for the following -isms, but by breaking away from the standard social construct into the creation of a unique individual or group of individuals.
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