The basic things that attract us to a fabric or garment are its design, colour and texture. These are the aesthetic values that influence our buying decision and how we feel about clothing and ourselves. While this can be personal, learning how to identify fabrics through their colour, design and textures will help you select clothing or match it with fabrics and patterns (Koester, 1993). In the fashion industry, the surface texture is one of the major characteristics that determines the appearance of a garment (Sirikasemlert and Tao, 2000). If a garment is soft and feels good on our skin, it means it has a good surface texture.
But what are textures? The Oxford Dictionary defines texture as the feel, appearance or consistency of a surface or substance or the character or appearance of a textile fabric as determined by the arrangement and thickness of its threads. Davis defined texture as a tangible structure surface or a manipulated three-dimensional substance and the visual qualities of surface and substance (Davis, 1996).
Scholars have classified textures as two basic types- visual and tactile. Visual textures are two dimensional and are something which can be seen. There is no actual tactile sense that can be perceived from visual textures. Tactile texture is the authentic and tangible surface of a substance that can be felt on our fingertips (Pipes, 2004). The sensation from touching, holding or squeezing fabrics is referred to as hand. The texture of a fabric is determined by the fiber, yarn, structure (weave, knit) and finish (Koester, 1993).
Texture in fashion design has two characteristic groups- visible appearance and performance. Performance indicates properties and functions of materials and must be tested by manipulating the fabric (Brannon, 2011). For example, while designing clothes for children, it is kept in mind of the designer that the fabrics have to be soft and comfortable as they have sensitive skin. However, fashion designers innovate designs that have visual appearances and create surface textures that are aesthetic and visually pleasing (Gong and Shin, 2013).
Why are textures so important?
The surface texture and quality of fabric go hand-in-hand. Texture performance depends on fabric texture (Hua, 2003). Hence, if the fabric construction is perfect, its performance and feel is good. The performance of a fabric is attached to emotions. Fabrics provide different types of feel and emotions through its textures. For eg, chiffon provides a feminine and sophisticated feel due to its light and smooth texture (Davis, 1996).
Fabric texture is very important. Fashion design is a visual medium and the only way a designer can hold the attention of the audience and consumer is through textures. That is why there is a continuous need for designing different tactile textures. Textures evoke emotions in human beings. We remember things like the feel of a cosy blanket from a hotel or the crisp feel of a new tailored wedding suit because of the emotional experiences attached to it.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACE TEXTURES
A large number of surface designs with various techniques are first classified as three-dimensional tactile texture and two-dimensional visual texture from a microscopic view. From both aesthetic and technical perspectives, similar characteristics of forming mechanisms are categorized into the following-
1. Original Texture: It is the original surface texture of ready-made fabrics. Various surface textures of different types of woven, knits, leather and fur belong to the class of original texture.
2. Treated Texture: These textures are created by fabric treatment and is closely related to origin texture which is the underpinning of treated texture. Fabric treatment can be chemical, mechanical or handmade, and change or enhance the original surface appearance. There is a wide variety of traditional treatments for enhancing fabric appearance, such as pleating, fold, shibori, metalizing, singeing and etc.
3. Supplementary textures: This indicates additional materials attached to fabric surface for decorative purposes. Embroidery and embellishments give a decorative and three-dimensional look and add an interest to the surface.
4. Composite Texture: This is characterized by mixed effect through synthesizing two or more materials. The texture is produced by mixing fibres with fibres, fibres with fabrics or fabrics with fabrics. Bonding, Laminating and felting (wet or dry) are typical techniques.
5. Future Texture: It denotes unconventional or newly invented textures produced with innovative materials by innovative techniques. For example, textures created through 3-D printing.
Factors that determine the texture of fabrics
Effect of yarns and fabric construction
The texture of a fabric is determined by the fibre, yarn, structure (weave, knit, etc.), and finish Fiber is the smallest component of a fabric but it influences texture. For example, wool gives a soft texture and linen gives a crisp texture. Short lengths of staple fibre or long continuous filament fibres are twisted to form yarns. The type of fibers and the method used in joining different fibers to make a yarn and amount of fibers twisted can be varied (Koester, 1993). Texture of a yarn is determined by the yarn twist. The amount of twist is an important factor in finished consumer goods. It determines the appearance, durability and serviceability of a fabric (Corbman, 1983). Yarn twist contributes to strength (Udale, 2014).
A single yarn is one yarn twisted whereas ply yarns have more than one yarn twisted together. For example, two ply yarns have two yarns twisted together, three ply yarns have three yarns twisted together and so on. Yarns can also be twisted and textured to enhance its performance and aesthetic qualities. Texturizing processes were originally applied to man-made fibres to reduce such characteristics as transparency, slipperiness, and the possibility of pilling (formation of small fibre tangles or balls on a fabric surface). It make yarns more opaque, improve appearance and texture, increases warmth and absorbency, imparts special texture and appearance (2017). The process modifies the handle of the filament yarns by adding bulkiness and/or stretchiness to the filaments and therefore changes the smooth surface feel of fabrics (Behery, 2005). The feel of textured-yarn fabrics against the skin is considerably different than that of flat-yarn fabric. Textured yarns give a fabric more pleasant hand, fabric becomes warmer and softer and it has less synthetic feeling (Shanmugasundaram, 2008; as cited in Mahar & Pestle, 1983).
Fabric structure is nothing but its construction, i.e., woven (fabric made of wefts- yarns going across the width of the fabric and warps- yarns going down the length of the loom), knitted (a series of interlocking loop stitches) or non-woven (a web of man-made fibres held together by a resin, heat and pressure, or needle punching). The way the yarns are combined into the fabric structure determines aspects of texture such as the weight, flexibility, firmness or compressibility, and stability or stretchiness characteristics of the fabric. The most durable fabrics are generally those with tightly twisted smooth yarns combined to make a closely woven or knit fabric (such as woven gingham, gabardine, and smooth double knits). Clothing that will receive frequent wear is usually constructed from durable textures while special occasion clothing provides variety in less durable textures. The fabric’s weight and the flexibility or stiffness determine the silhouette and the shaping of the fabric to the body. (Koester, 1993).
Another texture factor is suitability of a fabric or a specific use is the stability or stretchiness. Many knits have some stretchiness but not all knits have equal amounts. Woven fabrics with stretch are also being developed. It should not be assumed that because a fabric is a knit, it is stretchy, or if it is a woven fabric that it is stable (Koester, 1993).
Effect of finishing processes
Mechanical and chemical finishes can either take place at the fibre stage of development of the fabric or on the actual finished surface of the textile. Processes can be used to add extra properties to a fabric or garment for visual, tactile or functional effects (Udale, 2014). There are various finishing processes that determine the final surface texture of fabrics or garments.
Mercerization
Mercerization is a process that is used at the fibre stage, in case of cellulose as well as on the fabric surface, in the case of cotton. When cellulose is mercerized, the overall shape becomes circular and uniform from its initial irregular shape, making it stronger and smoother to touch. The round shape makes the fiber more lustrous (Behery, 2005). Mercerization is usually used on cotton fabrics where chemicals are added to the fabric to increase the fibre’s lustre. It also makes the fabric stronger and more susceptible to dye (Udale, 2014).
Stiffening or Sizing
Fabrics can be stiffened temporarily and permanently. In temporary stiffening, fabrics, especially cotton, can be given stiffness, smoothness, weight and strength by immersing it in a solution of starch in order to retain the freshness of fabrics on the dealers’ shelves. Fabrics can also be permanently stiffened with chemical processes that alter the cellular structure of the fiber and make the stiffness last for the entire life of the fabric. The processes involved in permanent stiffening make the fabric smoother, and soil lesser as dirt doesn’t cling to it. As a result, fabrics with permanent sizing require less laundering and last longer (Corbman, 1983).
Weighting
Fabrics like silk can be given weight by adding tin salts to it. Adding weight improves the hand (feel of the fabric) and drape. Low grade wool fabrics can gain additional weight by felting short wool fibers, known as flocks, into the fabric. These flocks are obtained when wool fabrics are washed, brushed and sheared (Corbman, 1983).
Calendaring
During the calendaring process, a fabric passes through a set of heated rollers producing a flat glossy surface (Udale, 2014). Friction calendaring is a type of calendaring which has one roller (the hot steal role) going faster than the goods being passed through (Corbman, 1983). Calendaring gives the fabric a lustrous surface. There are various methods of calendaring listed below.
- Glazing: In the process of glazing, a stiff polished or glazed surface is achieved by applying starch, glue, mucilage or shellac followed by friction calendaring. This finish is often seen in chintz fabric (Corbman, 1983).
- Ciré: Ciré fabrics are coated with a wax or resin before being calendared with heated rollers (Bhutani, 2014).
- Schreinerizing: flattens yarns and fabric surface with the shcreiner calendar’s roller that has 200-300 diagonal lines engraved at a distance of an inch from each other and is visible only from a magnifying glass (Bhutani, 2014).
- Embossing: the process of producing raised figures or designs in relief on surfaces of fabrics by passing the cloth between heated engraved rollers (Corbman, 1983).
- Moiré: A moiré finish can also be achieved using patterned rollers. The pressure and heat used produce a higher lustre (Udale, 2014).
Scouring and Milling
Scouring and milling are finishing processes applied to wool. Scouring removes impurities from wool. The milling process incorporates felting where moisture, heat and pressure are applied to fabrics causing wool fibres to contract and matt together. This process improves the handle of the cloth (Udale, 2014). High speed scouring and milling notably modify properties such as shear rigidity and volume of the fabric (Kayseri, Özdil & Mengüç, 2012).
Shearing, Singeing and Brushing
Shearing is a process that removes surface fibers, yarn ends, knots and other surface flaws. It may create a smooth surface or a patterned or sculptured effect by flattening portions of the pile with an engraved roller (Bhutani, 2014). After shearing, a fabric is singed to control surface fibre. The singeing process makes a fabric smoother as it is passed over a flame and excess fibres are burnt off (Udale, 2014). Sheared fabrics are also brushed to remove loose fibres and guide the nap of the surface in a single direction (Bhutani, 2014).
Napping
Nap is raising process that pulls fiber ends from the ground weave of the fabric to produce a relatively deep hairy surface. The fuzzy finish produced by napping makes a soft fabric, which provides warmth and because of the insulative air cells in the nap (Corbman, 1983). Velvets, flannel, corduroy and satin are all examples of napped fabrics. The rich hand and surface texture of napped fabrics make them ideal candidates for luxury garments and design interest (Bhutani, 2014).
Tufting
created by sewing additional yarns to the surface of a fabric, creating a multi-dimensional appearance (Bhutani, 2014).
Pleating and Plisse
Permanent crinkles and pleats can be achieved on most synthetic and wool fabrics through applying heat and shaping as the fibres are permanently changed. Pleating can be done by hand or machine. Pleating adds stretchiness to a garment. An example of pleated garments is the signature pieces of Issey Miyake made from thermoplastic polyester jersey (Udale, 2014). Plisse means to crease, fold or pleat a fabric and it can be temporary or permanent (Bhutani, 2014).
3D Embossing
Often used with foil stamping, a 3D Embossing alters the surface of a fabric by providing a three-dimensional or raised effect on selected areas (Bhutani, 2014).
Embroidery
Embroidered finishes are machine or hand applied yarns added using satin or fancy stitches to create textured patterns (Bhutani, 2014).
CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR
COMFORT IN CLOTHING
The basic requirement of clothing is that it must not cause discomfort for the wearer. Modern consumers are interested in clothing that not only looks good, but also feel good. It has been identified, by both natural and synthetic fibre markers, that consumers are increasingly involving more than their visual sense and are allowing touch, smell, intuition and emotion to influence their decisions. As a result, greater importance being attributed to the shopping and wearing experience interest is growing in better feeling fabrics. Comfort is being reinforced a key parameter in clothing (Malik, Sinha, 2012) .
Comfort has been identified by major fibre marketers as one of the key attributes for consumer’s desirability on apparel products in all markets. Comfort as a pleasant state of physiological, psychological and physical harmony between a human being and the environment. Physiological comfort is related to the human body’s ability to maintain life, psychological comfort to the mind’s ability to keep it functioning satisfactorily with external help and physical comfort to the effect of the external environment on the body (Malik, Sinha, 2012).
Definition of comfort
When the comfort condition exists, the mind is alert and the body operates at maximum efficiency. It has been found that maximum productivity occurs under comfortable conditions (Song, 2011). Comfort is a fundamental and universal need of every human being but it is quite complex to define. According to Fourt and Hollies (1970), comfort involves thermal and non-thermal components and is related to wear situations such as working, critical and non-critical conditions. The physiological responses of the human body to a given combination of clothing and environmental conditions are predictable when the system reaches steady state. According to Slater (1985), comfort is a pleasant state of physiological, psychological, neuro-physiological and physical harmony between a human being and the environment. Although it is difficult to describe comfort positively, discomfort can be described in terms of prickle, itch, hot and cold. Hatch (1993) defines comfort as freedom from pain and from discomfort in a neutral state. Comfort depends on subjective perception of visual, thermal and tactile sensations, psychological processes, body-apparel interaction and external environmental effects (Li, 2001).
Clothing comfort
Human beings are surrounded by various environments, out of which clothing is the nearest mobile environment. The primary function of clothing is to protect the body from unsuitable physical environment. Other than this, clothing serves several functions in human life such as decoration, social status, protection and modesty. Aesthetic clothing according to the latest fashion gives the wearer mental comfort and a feeling of looking good, whereas well-fitting and luxurious dresses enhance the wearer’s status. Human perception of clothing comfort is an interaction between physical, physiological and psychological factors with the surrounding environment when wearing a garment. Comfort is a complex phenomenon. The subjective perception of comfort involves the a large number of stimuli from clothing and external environment communicating with the brain through multi-channels of sensory responses to form subjective perceptions. These perceptions involve a psychological process in which all relevant sensory perceptions are formulated, weighed, combined and evaluated against past experiences and present desires to form an overall analysis of comfort status (Song, 2011).
Pontrelli (1977) developed a Comfort’s Gestalt which stated three variables affecting the comfort status of the wearer:
- Physical variables of the environment and clothing
- Psycho-physical parameters of the wearer
- Psychological filters of the brain
The image below explains the process of subjective perception of comfort.
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