In this paper, I compare USA & Iran in terms of political participation of women. The paper addresses the following: main research questions: : What are the differences concerning women rights between US and Iran in terms of political participation ? The hypothesis tested in this research is that the more liberal-democratic political system in the USA allows for higher political participation of women than Iran. The more liberal-democratic political system in the USA by comparison with Iran is the independent variable..The women’s political participation in politics in USA higher than Iran is the dependent and study variable in this research.
In order to offer an answer to the main research question,the paper will be organized in two sections. The first subordinate question as follows: What is the situation of women political participation in the USA? This subordinate question will be answered in section one by examining the political rights, gender equality and law implementation in the US.The second subordinate question is about why Iran is a deviant case regarding women political participation.All the above elements of the research mechanism ensure the internal validity of this comparative research.
According to Hague & Harrop (2007, pp. 85-88) There are three levels of analysis in comparative politics state-focused level,institution-focused level and society-focused level. The State-focused level of analysis concentrates on the state,which is deemed the main actor in politics. A state in itself is an autonomus and active participant in global arena, which makes decisions and plays a role in many areas such as the economy 89). Institution-focused analysis examines institutions which are formal entities of states legal arrangements.Society- focused analysis to concentrate on the society which has an important role for liberal democracy. People who have rights and freedoms as citizens have also demands which are transformedinto formal rules, laws and regulations I have chosen state-focused level as the level of analysis because the main focus state policies about the political participation of women.
There are three types of comparative analysis approaches. These are case study, focused comparison and statistical Analysis. A case study is investigating something with significance beyond its own boundaries as a case is an instance of a more general category (Hague and Harrop, 2007, p. 89). A focused Comparison is the type of analysis that concentrate on the intensive comparison of an aspect of politics in a few countries ( Hague & Harrop, 2007, p.92). Finally, a statistical analysis is an analysis in which one variable stands dependent while others are independent or explatory with focus on statistical data( Hague & Harrop, 2007, p. 93). I have chosen case study because women participation in politics in US interpreted here on a representative case, while Iran, in this logical approach, is a deviant case.
The main bibliography employed in this research Heywood (2007), Hague& Harrop (2007),
Bari (2005), Karam (2006) for the theory part. In the first part , I use Ballinghton (2011), Laws (2012), Rosaldo (2007).This main bibliography indicates the external validity of my comparative study.
The Meaning of Political Participation in the Theory of Liberal Democracy
I explain the what is the meaning of women participation in politics in the liberal democracy also, I clarify the what is the meaning of rights policy the task of policy analysis is to understand what governments do, how they do it and what difference it makes. Where political science examines the organizations of the political factory, policy analysis examines the products emerging from it. So,the is focus on the content,instruments,impact and evaluation of public policy.Policy analysis is concerned with improving the quality and efficacy of public policy,giving the subject a distinctly practical air. In understanding the policy process, it is important to avoid imposing rationality on what is oftena deeply non-rational process.( Hague & Harrop, 2007, pp. 377).
Before explaining womens rights to political participation, it is essential to observe that the main condition for all kind of rights is a democratic constitution which builds the institutionsand, determines the scope of sovereign powers and individual civil rights.(Laws 2012, pp. 569-570)
Among the indicators of success of women’s participation in politics are the following: the introduction of political, institutional and financial guarantees that promote women’s candidacies to ensure the equal participation of female nominees in electoral campaigns; designing legislative regulations for implementing effective quota mechanisms; the creation of educational programmes and centres designed to prepare women for political careers; and the development of and support for schools (or centres) for the training of women for participation in electoral campaigns. ( Karam, 2005, pp.45).
Women’s historic exclusion from the formal arena of politics; analyze strategies adopted around the world to promote women’s political participation/representation; identify internal and external conditions and factors that facilitate or hinder the creation of an enabling environment for women’s political empowerment; and finally draw policy recommendations for the national and international actors. The development context of women’s political participation at the community and national levels will be reviewed for nuanced understanding of the nature of women’s participation and their share in development processes and outcomes. The challenge facing all advocates of gender equality in politics today is the wide gap between shared values reflected in the national and international policies and practices. Before identifying the key strategies for the promotion of women’s political participation and the vital elements in the enabling environment for women’s political empowerment, we need to strive for a deeper understanding of the structural imperatives of a society in which women’s political participation is instituted. (Bari, 2005, pp.1-2).
States having such constitutions are considered as liberal democratic ones. In order :to provide political participation rights, all liberal democratic states must have a high-level standard constitution( Heywood 2007, pp.316).
States having such constitutions are considered as liberal democratic ones. In order :to provide political participation rights, all liberal democratic states must have a high-level standard constitution( Heywood 2007, pp.316).
To sum up, This part mentioned about meaning of policy and I clarfy what is the meaning of political participation in politics, women in political life, constitution, and law making.
Women participation in politics in USA
In this section, I evaluate the issue of women participation in politics in USA on the basis of the criteria explained in the introduction. The subordinate question addressed is, What is the situation of women political participation in the USA? This subordinate question will be answered in section one by examining the political rights, gender equality and law implementation in the USA. I focus on gender equality in the USA regarding the following issues:being candidates/voting , being elected and being in government.
The equal participation of women in politics and government is integral to building strong communities and a vibrant democracy in which women and men can thrive. By voting, running for office, and engaging in civil society as leaders and activists, women shape laws,
policies, and decision-making in ways that reflect their interests and needs, as well as those of their families and communities.
Individuals engage in a variety of political activities including voting, donating to campaigns, protesting, organizing through local political groups, and serving in local office or on local boards to improve their lives and communities, have a voice in public affairs, and influence policy. Although voting is the most common form of political participation, only slightly more than half of all eligible voters vote in U.S. presidential elections. Even fewer Americans participate in more demanding and costly activities such as donating time or money to political campaigns, contacting public officials, or participating in a demonstration or protest Historically, men and women have participated in a variety of political activities at different rates. Women, for example, have voted at higher rates in elections in the United States since the 1980s, but lag behind men in other activities, such as contacting public officials and donating money to political campaigns, although this does not apply to all groups of women ( Farris &Holman 2014, pp. 112-115) for a discussion of Black women’s political participation). Women are also less interested in politics and seek office at far lower rates than their male counterparts do.
Although women have become increasingly active in U.S. politics, the majority of political office holders at the state and federal levels are still male. As of March 2015, women held just 104 of 535 (19.4 percent) seats in the U.S. Congress, 1,786 of 7,383 (24.2 percent) seats in the nation’s state legislatures, and 78 of 317 (24.6 percent) statewide elective executive offices among women of color, the level of representation is especially low: women of color—who constitute approximately 18 percent of the population aged 18 and older (IWPR 2015b)—hold about 6.2 percent of seats in the U.S. Congress, 5.3 percent of seats in state legislatures, and 2.8 percent of statewide elective executive positions. (Schneider, 2015, p. 87).
Campaigning-while-female” refers to experiences that many women running for elective office believe are different from men’s. Campaigning-while-female highlights experiences that differ from incidents of discrimination. Discrimination is seen in instances where women candidates and elected officials may receive fewer resources such as campaign donations and party financial support, or fewer opportunities to sponsor legislation or participate in influential committees (Baer&Hartmann, 2014,pp.34-38).Rather, campaigning-while-female refers to a range of inappropriate and sexist comments and behaviors, such as a focus on outward appearance, questioning of qualifications for office, and increased curiosity about a woman’s personal life, such as her role as a wife and mother. While male candidates may also experience unwelcome curiosity about their private lives, women believe these concerns are expressed much more strongly to women candidates, including frequent comments, for single women, on their dating life (Baer &Hartmann, 2014, p.39). Women candidates and elected officials have expressed the need to be always “on,” to always observe societal norms for how a woman in leadership should act and look. Many have experienced the “double bind” and seek to overcome it—they act like strong leaders but hope to escape the stigma of being labeled an aggressive woman (Political Parity 2014).
To conclude, in the second section, I have discussed the first subordinate question in the bases of the theoretical criteria explained previous section. There are many factors that make the US case a model case concerning the women’s participation in politics.
Women participation politics in Iran
In the prevision section I have identified specific criteria concerning the women participation in politics analyzed the US case based on those issues. The analysis established that USA can be considered a representative,model case concerning women participating politics.Based on the sama criteria, I analyse the second subordinate question: The second subordinate question is about why Iran is a deviant case regarding women political participation.The answer of this question is important for testing the hypothesis because it would offer that the more liberal-democratic political system in the USA allows for higher political participation of women than Iran.
After the 1979 Islamic Revolution, deep changes occurred in the state, including the rights of women, both as the first and second factors of this research. The new regime destroyed most of the achievements won during Shah Eras.( Karimi 2014, p. 72) states that during the Pahlavi era, women were defeated after the Islamic Revolution. More importantly, the 1967 and 1973 Family Expression Acts were annulled after the Revolution. These laws were donating to a number of women in Iran. Instead of these laws, family law stemming from sheriat was applied. (Shojaei, 2010, p. 260)
In this paper, I compare USA & Iran in terms of political participation of women. The paper addresses the following: main research questions: : What are the differences concerning women rights between US and Iran in terms of political participation ? The hypothesis tested in this research is that the more liberal-democratic political system in the USA allows for higher political participation of women than Iran. The more liberal-democratic political system in the USA by comparison with Iran is the independent variable..The women’s political participation in politics in USA higher than Iran is the dependent and study variable in this research.
In order to offer an answer to the main research question,the paper will be organized in two sections. The first subordinate question as follows: What is the situation of women political participation in the USA? This subordinate question will be answered in section one by examining the political rights, gender equality and law implementation in the US.The second subordinate question is about why Iran is a deviant case regarding women political participation.All the above elements of the research mechanism ensure the internal validity of this comparative research.
According to Hague & Harrop (2007, pp. 85-88) There are three levels of analysis in comparative politics state-focused level,institution-focused level and society-focused level. The State-focused level of analysis concentrates on the state,which is deemed the main actor in politics. A state in itself is an autonomus and active participant in global arena, which makes decisions and plays a role in many areas such as the economy 89). Institution-focused analysis examines institutions which are formal entities of states legal arrangements.Society- focused analysis to concentrate on the society which has an important role for liberal democracy. People who have rights and freedoms as citizens have also demands which are transformedinto formal rules, laws and regulations I have chosen state-focused level as the level of analysis because the main focus state policies about the political participation of women.
There are three types of comparative analysis approaches. These are case study, focused comparison and statistical Analysis. A case study is investigating something with significance beyond its own boundaries as a case is an instance of a more general category (Hague and Harrop, 2007, p. 89). A focused Comparison is the type of analysis that concentrate on the intensive comparison of an aspect of politics in a few countries ( Hague & Harrop, 2007, p.92). Finally, a statistical analysis is an analysis in which one variable stan
ds dependent while others are independent or explatory with focus on statistical data( Hague & Harrop, 2007, p. 93). I have chosen case study because women participation in politics in US interpreted here on a representative case, while Iran, in this logical approach, is a deviant case.
The main bibliography employed in this research Heywood (2007), Hague& Harrop (2007),
Bari (2005), Karam (2006) for the theory part. In the first part , I use Ballinghton (2011), Laws (2012), Rosaldo (2007).This main bibliography indicates the external validity of my comparative study.
The Meaning of Political Participation in the Theory of Liberal Democracy
I explain the what is the meaning of women participation in politics in the liberal democracy also, I clarify the what is the meaning of rights policy the task of policy analysis is to understand what governments do, how they do it and what difference it makes. Where political science examines the organizations of the political factory, policy analysis examines the products emerging from it. So,the is focus on the content,instruments,impact and evaluation of public policy.Policy analysis is concerned with improving the quality and efficacy of public policy,giving the subject a distinctly practical air. In understanding the policy process, it is important to avoid imposing rationality on what is oftena deeply non-rational process.( Hague & Harrop, 2007, pp. 377).
Before explaining womens rights to political participation, it is essential to observe that the main condition for all kind of rights is a democratic constitution which builds the institutionsand, determines the scope of sovereign powers and individual civil rights.(Laws 2012, pp. 569-570)
Among the indicators of success of women’s participation in politics are the following: the introduction of political, institutional and financial guarantees that promote women’s candidacies to ensure the equal participation of female nominees in electoral campaigns; designing legislative regulations for implementing effective quota mechanisms; the creation of educational programmes and centres designed to prepare women for political careers; and the development of and support for schools (or centres) for the training of women for participation in electoral campaigns. ( Karam, 2005, pp.45).
Women’s historic exclusion from the formal arena of politics; analyze strategies adopted around the world to promote women’s political participation/representation; identify internal and external conditions and factors that facilitate or hinder the creation of an enabling environment for women’s political empowerment; and finally draw policy recommendations for the national and international actors. The development context of women’s political participation at the community and national levels will be reviewed for nuanced understanding of the nature of women’s participation and their share in development processes and outcomes. The challenge facing all advocates of gender equality in politics today is the wide gap between shared values reflected in the national and international policies and practices. Before identifying the key strategies for the promotion of women’s political participation and the vital elements in the enabling environment for women’s political empowerment, we need to strive for a deeper understanding of the structural imperatives of a society in which women’s political participation is instituted. (Bari, 2005, pp.1-2).
States having such constitutions are considered as liberal democratic ones. In order :to provide political participation rights, all liberal democratic states must have a high-level standard constitution( Heywood 2007, pp.316).
States having such constitutions are considered as liberal democratic ones. In order :to provide political participation rights, all liberal democratic states must have a high-level standard constitution( Heywood 2007, pp.316).
To sum up, This part mentioned about meaning of policy and I clarfy what is the meaning of political participation in politics, women in political life, constitution, and law making.
Women participation in politics in USA
In this section, I evaluate the issue of women participation in politics in USA on the basis of the criteria explained in the introduction. The subordinate question addressed is, What is the situation of women political participation in the USA? This subordinate question will be answered in section one by examining the political rights, gender equality and law implementation in the USA. I focus on gender equality in the USA regarding the following issues:being candidates/voting , being elected and being in government.
The equal participation of women in politics and government is integral to building strong communities and a vibrant democracy in which women and men can thrive. By voting, running for office, and engaging in civil society as leaders and activists, women shape laws, policies, and decision-making in ways that reflect their interests and needs, as well as those of their families and communities.
Individuals engage in a variety of political activities including voting, donating to campaigns, protesting, organizing through local political groups, and serving in local office or on local boards to improve their lives and communities, have a voice in public affairs, and influence policy. Although voting is the most common form of political participation, only slightly more than half of all eligible voters vote in U.S. presidential elections. Even fewer Americans participate in more demanding and costly activities such as donating time or money to political campaigns, contacting public officials, or participating in a demonstration or protest Historically, men and women have participated in a variety of political activities at different rates. Women, for example, have voted at higher rates in elections in the United States since the 1980s, but lag behind men in other activities, such as contacting public officials and donating money to political campaigns, although this does not apply to all groups of women ( Farris &Holman 2014, pp. 112-115) for a discussion of Black women’s political participation). Women are also less interested in politics and seek office at far lower rates than their male counterparts do.
Although women have become increasingly active in U.S. politics, the majority of political office holders at the state and federal levels are still male. As of March 2015, women held just 104 of 535 (19.4 percent) seats in the U.S. Congress, 1,786 of 7,383 (24.2 percent) seats in the nation’s state legislatures, and 78 of 317 (24.6 percent) statewide elective executive offices among women of color, the level of representation is especially low: women of color—who constitute approximately 18 percent of the population aged 18 and older (IWPR 2015b)—hold about 6.2 percent of seats in the U.S. Congress, 5.3 percent of seats in state legislatures, and 2.8 percent of statewide elective executive positions. (Schneider, 2015, p. 87).
Campaigning-while-female” refers to experiences that many women running for elective office believe are different from men’s. Campaigning-while-female highlights experiences that differ from incidents of discrimination. Discrimination is seen in instances where women candidates and elected officials may receive fewer resources such as campaign donations and party financial support, or fewer opportunities to sponsor legislation or participate in influential committees (Baer&Hartmann, 2014,pp.34-38).Rather, campaigning-while-female refers to a range of inappropriate and sexist comments and behaviors, such as a focus on outward appearance, questioning of qualifications for office, and increased curiosity about a woman’s personal life, such as her role as a wife and mother. While ma
le candidates may also experience unwelcome curiosity about their private lives, women believe these concerns are expressed much more strongly to women candidates, including frequent comments, for single women, on their dating life (Baer &Hartmann, 2014, p.39). Women candidates and elected officials have expressed the need to be always “on,” to always observe societal norms for how a woman in leadership should act and look. Many have experienced the “double bind” and seek to overcome it—they act like strong leaders but hope to escape the stigma of being labeled an aggressive woman (Political Parity 2014).
To conclude, in the second section, I have discussed the first subordinate question in the bases of the theoretical criteria explained previous section. There are many factors that make the US case a model case concerning the women’s participation in politics.
Women participation politics in Iran
In the prevision section I have identified specific criteria concerning the women participation in politics analyzed the US case based on those issues. The analysis established that USA can be considered a representative,model case concerning women participating politics.Based on the sama criteria, I analyse the second subordinate question: The second subordinate question is about why Iran is a deviant case regarding women political participation.The answer of this question is important for testing the hypothesis because it would offer that the more liberal-democratic political system in the USA allows for higher political participation of women than Iran.
After the 1979 Islamic Revolution, deep changes occurred in the state, including the rights of women, both as the first and second factors of this research. The new regime destroyed most of the achievements won during Shah Eras.( Karimi 2014, p. 72) states that during the Pahlavi era, women were defeated after the Islamic Revolution. More importantly, the 1967 and 1973 Family Expression Acts were annulled after the Revolution. These laws were donating to a number of women in Iran. Instead of these laws, family law stemming from sheriat was applied. (Shojaei, 2010, p. 260)