Essay: Review of multiple articles, focusing on Donald Trump

Adler-Nissen, Rebecca. “Late sovereign diplomacy.” The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, vol. 4, 2009, pp. 147-173.
Multiple perspectives of state interaction are critical for an understanding of essential qualitative changes within the European Union.  Three intertwined aspects of late sovereign diplomacy are explored, the teleological interpretation of treaties, the socialization of representatives, and the delocalizing of the national interest through the negotiation process. This article is useful for my paper because it shows the importance of solidarity in diplomatic relations.  A lack of this sense of common interest within leadership is undoubtedly detrimental to a state.  This lack of common interest directly relates to Donald Trump and his unpopularity.
Bixby, Scott. “President Trump Turned International Diplomacy Into a Fistfight—and Lost.” The Daily Beast, 2017, www.thedailybeast.com/president-trump-turned-international- diplomacy-into-a-fistfightand-lost.
This article focuses on how Donald Trump has challenged international rules and violated international norms.  In a meeting with NATO, Trump accused the Germans of being bad people, and during a memorial to NATO’s strength after 9/11, he scolded NATO member nations for not paying what they should be paying. He also threatened to end the Paris Agreement, singlehandedly.  This article is relevant to my paper because it mentions a few of the international norms that Trump has broken.  If 195 countries can agree that something is right, suddenly withdrawing from the agreement certainly breaks unspoken international rules and standards.  I can analyze these acts of political aggression in detail in my paper.
Bowden, John. “China: Trump Trade Probe Violates International Rules.” TheHill, Aug. 2017, thehill.com/homenews/administration/346591-china-trump-trade-probe-violates- international-rules.
China has recently been requesting American companies to hand over technology in order to have access to the Chinese market. Based on this movement, Donald Trump accused China of focusing on making money by trading with the United States, while doing nothing to help the United States solve the problem with North Korea.  This is incredibly relevant to my paper because there is an international law in place, that is there to protect the trade interests of countries.  However, market access should not be contingent on transferring technology.  Although unclear, requesting an investigation likely violates this law, and is indeed a deviation from long-standing convention.
Dean, John. “Is the Trump’s Norm-Breaking Presidency Un-American Or Merely Unorthodox? | John Dean.” Verdict | Legal Analysis and Commentary from Justia, 2017, verdict.justia.com/2017/03/31/trumps-norm-breaking-presidency-un-american-merely- unorthodox.
Donald Trump broke norms throughout his presidential campaign.  Two notable occurrences were claiming the election was rigged, to jailing Hillary Clinton when he won.  Once he was elected, he continued violating norms. Although he has broken many standards, several notable occurrences are refusing to release his tax returns, hired his son-in-law and daughter, embracing conspiracy theories, and rejecting the government’s intelligence findings (Russia hacked the election to help Trump win).  This is relevant to my paper because it provides a sufficient amount of norms violated, although not all on an international level.  However, some of his domestic violations can be expanded to an international level, such as the conspiracy with the Russians and the election.  Lastly, his actions were still shaped by preexisting conventions, even though he went against them.
Donnelly, Jack. “The Elements of the Structures of International Systems.” International Organization, vol. 66, no. 04, 2012, pp. 609-643.
International theory typically puts its focus on the effects of anarchy on a state.  However, simple hunter-gatherer societies were anarchic but did not experience war or pursue gains.  This article takes a look at the organization of three simple lawless orders: Hobbesian states of nature, forager band societies, and great power states.  It is found that these anarchic societies are entirely structural, and contain complexity and a regular change in the structures of the community.  This article is useful because it discusses that a collective agreement and cooperation could provide a good outcome, even for the states who could have undesirable consequences.
Griffin, Robert, and Ruy Teixera. “The Story of Trump’s Appeal.” Democracy Fund Voter Study Group, 2016, www.voterstudygroup.org/publications/2016-elections/story-of-trumps- appeal.
This article takes a look at the intertwined, driving features that drove Trump’s win in the election.  First demographics were analyzed.  Older, middle-class Americans expressed support for Trump.  Counties who had a high support rate for Trump had a high non-college population, meaning these people were most susceptible to economic change.  In conclusion, this article found a definite relationship between support and attitude, possibly attesting to Trumps racial and cultural resentments.  This article is essential to my paper because it shows why Trump managed to achieve election and was able to sustain his platform, without being backed by the Republican constituency.
Johnson, Kevin, and David Jackson. “Trump Shakes Up Legal Team in Face of Widening Russia Probe.” USA TODAY, 2017, www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2017/07/21/trump- shakes-up-legal-team-face-widening-russia-probe/498629001/.
As it has been made well-known, Donald Trump has ties to Russia financially.  However, it is believed that Russia may have had links to the election as well. There have been multiple investigators looking into the election. However, one was fired, one resigned, and the third has been warned by Trump’s legal team.  This article is relevant to my paper because Trump can afford an excellent legal group, which has allowed him to bend the rules to meet his agenda.
Kang, David C. “Hierarchy and Legitimacy in International Systems: The Tribute System in Early Modern East Asia.” Security Studies, vol. 19, no. 4, 2010, pp. 591-622.
The East Asian “tribute system” was a stable and hierarchic system, with China on top.  Cultural achievement was incredibly significant, balancing with the economic and military success.  As these three dimensions came together, a stable security system was born.  A hierarchal relationship clarifies the distinction between international systems based on polarity and culture.  This article can be tied into Donald Trump’s views on global success.  He assumes American self-interest, but other international players will be able to achieve their own success.  In theory, this works, but Donald Trump is incredibly inconsistent, dividing nations into winners and losers.
Liptak, Kevin. “Cohn: Trump Still Plans to Leave Paris Climate Accord Politics.” CNN, 2017, www.cnn.com/2017/09/18/politics/gary-cohn-climate-paris-trump/index.html.
There has been much confusion on whether or not Donald Trump actually plans to withdraw from the Paras climate accord after showing a softening stance on the matter in Montreal.  Trump mentions that he will reconsider withdrawing if the terms can be re-engaged to favor the United States.  Several suggested changes are indicated, such as lowering the emissions reductions set by the Obama administration.  This is relevant because it is unconventional to withdraw from such a substantial agreement, especially when it will help the entire planet by reducing emissions.  However, Trump agreeing to reconsider does put him in a better light, although only caring about America’s benefit goes against international norms.
Lopez, Linette. “US Begins Section 301 Investigation Against China.” Business Insider, Aug. 2017, www.businessinsider.com/us-begins-section-301-investigation-2017-8.
The United States initiated an investigation into China’s theft of US intellectual property using Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974.  China sees this as an act of aggression because it allows Trump to act against the Chinese economy without consulting the World Trade Organization.  Although this is not a direct violation of the WTO, it violates international norms, and could potentially start a trade war with China.  This is relevant to my paper because Trump has transferred judicial authority from the WTO to the U.S. government while ignoring rulings made by the WTO to be against American interests.
Müller, Harald. “Arguing, Bargaining and all that: Communicative Action, Rationalist Theory and the Logic of Appropriateness in International Relations.” European Journal of International Relations, vol. 10, no. 3, 2004, pp. 395-435.
A synthesis between rational and constructivist approaches among negotiators is essential.  In fact, rationalist approaches eventually resort to social explanations, even when they deviate from the individualist approach of rationalism.  Although the article focuses on the rational approach, it does mention that each approach is guided by norms and rules which are shared among the negotiators.  Communicative persuasion accounts for conflicts of different understandings of appropriateness between the two methods.  This article is useful for my paper because conventional norms may not be entirely reliable for predictability of a country’s actions, especially with our unpredictable leader.  Trump’s credibility as the president is undermined by accusations of collusion and political sabotage, along with demonstrated instances of norm-breaking.  This harms the trust of the United States on an international level.
Nedal, Dani, and Daniel Nexon. “Trump’s ‘Madman Theory’ Isn’t Strategic Unpredictability. It’s Just Crazy.” Foreign Policy, 2017, foreignpolicy.com/2017/04/18/trumps-madman- theory-isnt-strategic-unpredictability-its-just-crazy/.
Throughout his campaign, Trump has been known to be unpredictable.  Nearly on a daily basis, Trump has switched positions on different political claims.  For example, he launched an investigation on China, then turned around and said he would not declare them a currency manipulator.  A missile strike was ordered to remove Assad from Syrian rule. However, it is now questionable if the policy demanding his removal will be continued.  This is relevant because this unpredictability was great during the election, the “what will he do next” mentality.  However, as president, this unpredictability can harm the country’s credibility.  Will we actually follow through on international promises?
Osiander, Andreas. “Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth.” International Organization, vol. 55, no. 2, 2001, pp. 251-287.
The ideology of sovereignty has hindered how international relations theory has developed.  Several events are analyzed to prove this.  The Thirty Years’ Way, the 1648 peace treaties, and the post-1648 Holy Roman Empire.  Taking a detailed look at these events can provide a better understanding of contemporary international politics in a western context.  This article will be useful in my paper because of its detailed description of sovereignty in a western context.  It is bound by meaning in the context of a decision, and the ability for the state to follow that decision.  This ties well into the case of Trump and Russia.  The U.S. government could have rebutted the election’s outcome, but that would have undermined the existing sovereignty of the U.S.
Porter, Tom. “Emmanuel Macron Says Bone-crushing Donald Trump Handshake Was ‘Not Innocent’.” Newsweek, 2017, www.newsweek.com/macron-trump-616941.
In a meeting with French president Emmanuel Macron, Donald Trump took an aggressive stance when he shook the president’s hand.  He refused to relinquish his grip, being compared to authoritarian strongmen Vladimir Putin of Russia and Recep Tayyip Erdogan of Turkey.  This is relevant because this was viewed as a threat.  Not necessarily a military threat, but more along of the lines of the United States has a significant amount of power, and should not be crossed.
Preuß, Ulrich K. “Transparency in International Law.” International Journal of Constitutional Law, vol. 12, no. 3, 2014, academic.oup.com/icon/article/12/3/820/763810/Transparency- in-International-Law.
This article discusses transparency in international law.  It begins by mentioning how spying is not a wrongful act, but instead an indispensable instrument for protecting a state’s security.  However, as countries close their boundaries and world organizations coming into play, global discourse about fair distribution of benefits and burdens of emerging global societies has become more regulated.  This is relevant to my paper because although control is good, trust is more important today.  The international environment is now defined by a high level of trust, creating significant vulnerabilities.  Trump’s methods are hurting this required trust, creating a global security dilemma.
Ruggie, John G. “What Makes the World Hang Together? Neo-utilitarianism and the Social Constructivist Challenge.” International Organization, vol. 52, no. 4, 1998, pp. 855-885.
This article focuses on constructivist approach in international relations. Three steps are taken to tie the constructivist project with the limits of neo-utilitarianism.  First, researching the approach, second, inventorying the increasingly extensive results produced by constructivism in international relations, and last, identifying all standard features of constructivist approaches to the study of international relations.  These lead to a fuller understanding of international relations in the real world.  Like many of the other articles I will be citing in my final paper, Ruggie is discussing that states need to voluntarily follow international laws, supporting international sovereignty.
Sandholtz, Wayne. “Dynamics of International Norm Change: Rules against Wartime Plunder.” European Journal of International Relations, vol. 14, no. 1, 2008, pp. 101-131.
In this article, a general model of international norm change is explored.  Two principal types of tensions exist—conflicts of the rules themselves and conflicts of the separate bodies of rules.  Due to these conflicts, standards are typically modified.  A process begins, rules turn to actions turn to arguments, which then reshape the rules.  The analysis of international war change focuses on two crucial turns through the cycle of change, the Napoleonic Wars and World War II.  This article relates to my paper because norm changes cannot be dictated by a single power, so changes in international norms cannot be introduced by Donald Trump alone.  However, these norms are frequently challenged by Trump, which is viewed as building American interests by his supporters.
Siu, Diamond N. “Trudeau: Trump’s Tweets Cause ‘wrinkles in International Diplomacy’ – POLITICO.” POLITICO, 2017, www.politico.eu/article/trudeau-trumps-tweets-cause- wrinkles-in-international-diplomacy/.
Donald Trump tends to take to Twitter as one of his significant forms of communication.  He has blatantly attacked other countries such as Canada and Mexico, which has led to calls to negotiate.  Although Twitter allows the president to communicate in a less filtered way, it is certainly not the best or most efficient way to communicate, especially internationally.  This is relevant to my paper because Trump’s twitter tirades have caused a kink in international security.
Wohlforth, William, et al. “Testing Balance-of-Power Theory in World History.” European Journal of International Relations, vol. 13, no. 2, 2007, pp. 155-185.
The balance of power is incredibly important in international relations.  Eight case studies on balancing success and failure in different international systems that make up over 2000 years of international politics.  It is found that many international systems have a tendency for failure.  Variation between balance and hegemony across international systems is different from how it has been recently studied.  This study views these variations differently, reframing research on both the European contemporary and international systems.  This article is relevant to my paper because Donald Trump has shown conformity with the balance-of-power framework described.  He has constantly been threatening to withdraw from the Paris climate accord, but it has been confusing whether he actually plans to do so.  He is looking to alter the agreement to sway in America’s favor, an attempt to balance