Within Psychology, Six Ethical Guidelines were introduced to protect the well-being, health and dignity of any participants that were involved in Psychological Research. These Ethical Guidelines were originally drafted by the British Psychological Society (BPS) in 1959, before being revised in 1990 and again in 2009 (The British Psychology Society, 2009). Prior to the Ethical Guidelines, anybody who was involved in research was viewed as a ‘subject’. It was later decided by Psychologists to refer to their ‘subjects’ as ‘active participants’, in line with a more humanistic approach. The Right to Withdraw
At the beginning of the study, the participants must be made aware / advised of their right to withdraw at any time with no penalty and no reason given. Participants are also able to request that their personal data is to be withdrawn from the research too. It is important that this is in place because some participants may feel pressured into continuing with the study, as well as feeling embarrassed about their results (Psych Yogi, 2015). Deception
Deception is where participants are incorrectly advised and misled about the research. Types of deception include; deliberate misleading for example, deceptive instructions or using confederates (McLeod, 2015). Deception should be avoided at all costs unless it is required or there is no choice or alternative solution. In some cases, some research can not be carried out without some level of deception. For example, The Placebo Effect is a type of research which is carried out on a certain amount of individuals with the same condition. Research on the placebo effect has focused on the relationship of mind and body. The study that took place showed that the placebo effect is all due to a persons expectations. For example, if the individual expects a pill to work, then its more than likely that the body will cause its own effects that are similar to how the said drug may have caused (WebMd, n.d.). The Placebo effect is just one of many research studies that may include deception. Confidentiality Confidentiality is very important with regards to sensitive personal information. Any participants must be ensured that they will be treated with the utmost confidentiality and that their anonymity will be preserved and respected at all times, unless otherwise stated by law (for example, in the case of the recorded information being maintained by the prison service). Procedures that are in place for Data Storage, must be conformed by the Data Protection Act (DPA). In any case where relevant, participants must be informed where their information will be stored and who will have access to it. Any express permission must be obtained for any non-confidential use of the participants information. All limitations to confidentiality must be explained, when required (Birch, 2018d). DebriefingDebriefing is where the researchers disclose any information that has been collected during the study. The debriefing is carried out in the format of a structured or semi structured interview between the researcher and the participant, so that the results and any additional information can be discussed throughly (Gilston, 2015). This allows the participant to ask any questions that they feel may be relevant to the results. It is important that the researcher advises the participant if they have had to withhold any information collected from the study and why. Informed Consent
Informed consent was set as one of the guidelines so that no research could be carried out on the participant without their consent. This allowed the researchers, under a legal obligation to obtain and record consent from the participants and/or their guardians, on the basis of information that would need to be given to them before any participation was to take place. This ensured that no coercion would be used against any participants that were involved (Birch, J 2018c). Protection Of Participant
Researchers who are conducting a study are obliged to make sure that their participants are free from any possible harm. This is so that their rights are preserved and to make sure that their anonymity and confidentiality is safeguarded. They should be protected from physical or menthol health, including stress (Tutor2U, n.d.). All research that takes place should be conducted under supervision. The supervisors conducting the research as also there to protect their supervises from any harm that may occur. What is Scientific Methodology?
The Scientific Methodology is a method used by Psychologists while carrying out their research. The Scientific Method is one of the most appropriate ways of getting accurate information (Wudka, 1998). Psychologists have found that this method provides them with reliable results, as well as results that can be generalised to the population. It also provides them with supporting evidence to back up Psychological theories.
The scientific method is made up of 5 steps, sic including a feedback session that is carried out at the end of the experiment. (Khan Academy, n.d.). The 5 steps of scientific methodology are as follows:
Observation; an observation is made at the beginning to start the research.
Question: a question will be asked after the observation has been made.
Hypothesis: this is made so that is can further the investigation.
Prediction: Predictions are made, based on the hypothesis.
Test: a test is carried out based on what prediction was made after the hypothesis. However, in some cases, a test may not be able to take place so a new prediction will need to be made.
After the steps have been carried out, a session will take place to gather any feedback that may have occurred. This will show whether the test that was carried out worked. If the evidence from the test is negative and did not work out, the a new theory will be made. If the results are positive, the application can proceed, or a new prediction can be made. Research Methods
Within Psychology, there are many methods in place to carry out research and gain evidence. Such methods include case studies, surveys and observational trails .
One method is interviewing. These can be carried out using a formal or informal approach. An informal interview resembles a casual conversation, between 2 or more individuals, whereby qualitative data is obtained in the form of opinions, thoughts and feelings. Unlike a formal interview, unstructured interviews do not have a set of questions that they have to go by. Instead, it allows the participant to ask any questions they need to and allows the interviewer to talk about they think may be necessary for the research. Formal interviews resemble a job interview. Structured interviews college quantitative data, by having set questions that have been laid out in a certain order. This is so that the interview is not flexible. New questions are not allowed to be added as this will cause the interview to deviate and will eliminate interviewer bias (McLeod, 2017).Another method is questionaries. Questionnaires are used to gather data from more than one individual. They provide a quick and efficient way to gain substantial information. This method of data collection is called convenience sampling. Questionnaires can be carried out in various way, which include face to face and by post. Carrying out this type of research method allows researchers to gather the data in a quick and formal manner, this is due to the researcher not needing to be present when it takes place. The questions asked in the questionnaires can be both open and closed. Asking these type of questions allow both quantitative and qualitative data to be collected. Whilst questionnaires may be a good method to carry out research, the answers given may not be truthful. (McLeod,2018). Behavioural approach
Behaviourism is a theory of learning. This is based on the idea that each behaviour is obtained through something called conditioning. Conditioning is something that happens via interaction with the environment. It is thought by behaviourists that the ‘environmental stimuli’ is what shapes our everyday actions. Behaviourism was first published about in a paper in 1913, written by John B Watson, called ‘Psychology as the Behaviourist views it’. (Cherry, 2018a)
Watson stated ‘Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – Doctor, Lawyer, Artist, Merchant Chief, and yes, even a beggar-man or thief. Regardless of his talents, penchant’s, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors’ (Watson, 1925). This meaning that, given the right conditioning, they can be trained to act in a certain manner. Relating to conditioning, an experiment was carried out by Albert Bandura in 1961. The experiment was called ‘The BoBo Doll Experiment’ (Bandura et al, 1961a). The research was carried out on children aged 3 – 5. Bandura planned this experiment in order to determine that, if a child watched an adult being aggressive towards the BoBo doll, they would copy this behaviour. Findings showed that once the adult left the room, the child acted in the same manner. Another experiment was conducted, by Watson in 1963, where the same doll was involved but the children were shown the violence over video before being left in the room with the doll. The study indicated that the exposure of aggressiveness through both video and in person, produce similar results as each other (Bandura et al, 1961b). Biological Approach
The Biological Approach looked into the chemical influences and how substances, i.e hormones, can change the way that a brain functions. Hormones such as Serotonin and Dopamine, can be altered using prescribed drugs to level out any unbalance of chemicals. (Birch, 2018a)
Biological Psychologists have great interest of the brain and its functions. They study the systems and the specialised parts with the human brain. Studies carried out have shown neurogenesis in the hippocampus (Gage,2003). This shows that the brain is not a mass of nervous tissue (Walinga, n.d.)
The Biological Approach also looks into people’s thoughts, their feelings and their behaviour. These are all determined by the individuals nervous system, along with certain behaviours and how they link to different areas of the brain.
The brain has four specific lobes; The Frontal lobe; also known as the motor cortex, The Occipital lobe; also known as the visual cortex, The Parietal lobe; also known as the somatosensory cortex and the Temporal lobe; also known as the auditory cortex. Each area plays an important role for the brain to function correctly. However, if damage occurs to a part of the brain, then this can cause physiological or psychological changes.
These type of changes effected Phineas Gage (1860). Gage was in a accident when a iron bar penetrated his skull while he was working on a railroad. Prior to the incident, he was energetic, a smart businessman and very persistent. It was also said by his friends that, he was a efficient fore-man and had a well-balanced mind. However, after the incident, Gages personality changed. This is due to his prefrontal lobe becoming damaged (Birch, 2018b). The damage to his brain caused him to have difficulties in decision-making and processing his emotions (Cherry, 2018b)
Other studies into the brain and its functions that negative factors, such as drugs or intense injuries can cause serious destruction. However, positive factors such as healthy diets or mental activities can cause psychological development (Kolb, Gibb, & Robinson, 2003).