Bronfenbrenner (1979) describes in his bioecological model interactions between biological and ecological systems in the development of an individual. According to this model, each individual is formed by biological characteristics (e.g., sex, age, genetics) in interaction with four ecological systems or “layers” around the individual: The microsystem, regarding the personal relationships and immediate surroundings (e.g., family, peers), the mesosystem regarding interactions between different microsystems (e.g., interaction between parents and school), the exosystem regarding non-direct impact on the individual (e.g., neighborhood, media) and lastly, the macrosystem regarding historical events, cultural and social beliefs (e.g., religious influence) (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). This model can be applied to social anxiety to describe risk and protective factors and their interactive effect.
One biological characteristic and risk factor of social anxiety is genetics. Previous research has shown that temperamental characteristics, such as Behavioral Inhibition (BI), could form a genetic vulnerability for the development of social anxiety (Biederman et al., 2001; Caouette & Guyer, 2014; Degnan & Fox, 2007; Spence & Rapee, 2016). BI is known as one of the most stable temperamental characteristics reported in childhood and can be described as an anxious/uneasy response to stimuli associated with novelty, punishment, negative affect, and anxiety (Degnan & Fox, 2007; Heubeck, Wilkinson & Cologon, 1998; Sanson, Hemphill & Smart, 2004). Moreover, BI is associated with fear and avoidance of unfamiliar people and social situations (Caouette & Guyer, 2014; Corr, Pickering & Gray, 1995). In a longitudinal study, Hirschfield-Becker and others (2007) studied BI in 281 children, aged 21 months to six years old at the start of the study, by observing their reaction to unfamiliar toys and adult examiners in a laboratory session. At follow-up, approximately five years after the baseline, 215 children were reassessed with child and parent interviews. High BI children at baseline showed a higher prevalence of social anxiety behaviors.
However, although a positive relation between BI and social anxiety has been found, not all children with high BI develop social anxiety (Degnan & Fox, 2007). A possible explanation for this fact is that there are many pathways to social anxiety and, more specifically, there is “emerging evidence of a complex interplay between intra-individual factors (genetic, biological processes, cognitive processes and social skills) and environmental factors (such as parental influences, aversive social experiences, and negative life events) in the etiology of SAD” (Spence & Rapee, 2016, p. 51). Moreover, it has been argued that social anxiety is heavily determined by environmental factors, such as the school context and relations with peers and parents (Eley, Rijsdijk, Perrin, O’Conor & Bolton, 2008; Spence & Rapee, 2016). As described before in the Bronfenbrenner’s model (1979), these environmental factors are described as the microsystem; the first layer around the individual’s biological characteristics. The individual interacts in this microsystem with class mates, peers and family, influencing the overall development and possibly the development of social anxiety (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
As aforementioned, social anxiety often has its onset in early adolescence (de Wit, Karioja, Rhey & Shain, 2011). During this developmental period, children go through puberty with many hormonal, physical (e.g., changes in body shape), social (e.g., importance of friendship), cognitive (e.g., more self-reflection) and emotional changes (e.g., mood swings), which make this a sensitive period for the development of social anxiety (Rao et al., 2007). In adolescence, children become more aware of their peer group in defining their self-worth, feel the need to conform to their peer group and, become more sensitive to the way they are treated by their peer group (Blöte, Kint & Westenberg, 2007; Caouette & Guyer, 2014; de Wit, Karioja, Rhey & Shain, 2011). Furthermore, relations with peers and social performances at school become increasingly important and, are encouraged by caregivers (Rao et al., 2007; Spence & Rapee, 2016). This suggests that peers in class, who influence the class climate, could play a significant role in the development of social anxiety, especially because adolescents spend a lot of time at school [31 to 33 hours per week according to the Schools and Staffing Survey 2017]). Class climate, in this context, can be defined as the social learning environment of pupils and is part of the microsystem (Ambrose et al., 2010; Blöte, Kint & Westenberg, 2007; Bronfenbrenner, 1979). A positive class climate is characterized by pupils showing respect for another and being attentive and silent when a teacher or classmate is talking. A negative class climate, on the other hand, is characterized by conflicts between class mates, disruption, little interest, and disorganization in class (Blöte, Kint & Westenberg, 2007; Gazelle, 2006). A negative class climate is associated with internalizing problems in adolescence, such as a decrease in self-esteem, an increase in feelings of depression and feelings of social anxiety (Bilz, 2013; de Wit et al., 2011). Furthermore, negative experiences with peers increase the risk of developing and maintaining social anxiety, because of the impact negative experiences can have on anxiety behaviors and cognitions (Rapee & Spence, 2016). Blöte, Kint, and Westenberg (2007) focused in their study on the naturalistic setting of the class climate by studying 998 low, middle and high socially anxious pupils, aged 13 to 18 years, and their class climates. The pupils imagined performing an oral presentation in their own classes and rated their perception of how class mates would behave towards themselves. The pupils also rated their perception of how their class mates would behave towards a hypothetical low and high anxious student. A teacher who previously experienced several oral presentations in the class rated the last two lists as well. Results showed that high socially anxious pupils experienced a more negative treatment from their class mates than low socially anxious pupils. The perception of negative treatment by class mates was shown to be partly caused by cognitive biases, but also based on actual negative treatment they received from class mates, concerning specific behaviors during oral presentations (Blöte & Westenberg, 2007; Spence & Rapee, 2016). All in all, it seems that a negative class climate is related to, or even increases the risk of developing social anxiety. This could explain why the school context is often found to be one of the most feared places by adolescents with social anxiety (Spence & Rapee, 2016).
As aforementioned, an adolescent spends approximately 20% of their week at school, leaving 80% of their time left spending with parents or friends (schools and staffing survey, 2017). This makes parents and friends, besides class mates, important people in the microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). They could be part of a social support system of the individual, which is important, while social support decreases psychological problems (Demaray et al., 2005; Rutter et al., 2010; Spence & Rapee, 2016). Social support can be defined as “an individual’s perception that he or she is cared for, esteemed, and valued by people in his or her social network, that enhances personal functioning, assists in coping adequately with stressors, and may buffer him or her from adverse outcomes” (Demaray et al., 2005, p. 691). Garnefski and Diekstra (1996) studied 119 adolescents, aged 16 to 18 years, of which 12.2 percent reported severe emotional problems. The relation between three support systems (i.e., school, peer, and parents) and emotional or behavioral problems was studied. Adolescents with emotional problems perceived their peers and family, but not school, as less supportive than adolescents without emotional problems. This indicates that perceived support from peers and family is connected to the emotional wellbeing of adolescents. More specifically, a lack of parental support seems to be related to emotional problems such as social stress and a low self-esteem (Demeray et al., 2005).
As described, the microsystem consists of multiple social support systems who influence the individual (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). It is therefore not unthinkable that much/little perceived support from more than one system could have a bigger effect on the individual than perceiving much/little support from only one system. Garnefski and Diekstra (1996) studied this additive effect of perceiving little support from multiple support systems on the presence of emotional and behavioral problems in 476 high school students, aged 16 to 18 years. The sample consisted of four subgroups: adolescents without problems, adolescents with behavioral problems, adolescents with emotional problems and adolescents with both behavioral problems and emotional problems. Results showed that all problem groups had more negatively perceived support systems as opposed to the group without emotional or behavioral problems. All in all, negative perceptions of multiple social support systems had a strong additive effect on the presence and severity of emotional and behavioral problems. No causality statements could be made in this study, but it seems that the negative perception of support systems and behavioral and emotional problems (such as social anxiety) are related. If this is the case, this suggests that the perception of little support from multiple support systems could even form a bigger risk at developing higher levels of social anxiety than perceiving little support from just one support system.
As described in the bioecological model of Bronfenbrenner (1979), the biological characteristics interact with the microsystem involving, among others, peers and parents. Therefore, perceived social support from peers or parents and BI might interact in the development of social anxiety. In a longitudinal prospective study of 20 years, Frenkel and others (2015) followed 165 high BI children for twenty years to study if BI was related to psychopathology (e.g., the presence of internalizing problems, externalizing problems, substance problems, anxiety disorders, mood disorders). BI was assessed four times between the ages of 13 months and 7 years (early childhood). Social involvement was assessed between the ages of 14 and 16 years (adolescence). Lastly, the presence of psychopathology was assessed between the ages of 18 and 21 years (early adulthood). Participants with high BI in early childhood were at higher risk of developing anxiety disorders in early adulthood, if they were low socially involved in peer groups during adolescence. However, if social involvement during adolescence was high, BI was not related to early adult anxiety. This suggests that little social involvement and therefore not perceiving much support during adolescence, could increase the risk for anxiety in early adulthood. Stated differently, a higher perception of social support from peers during adolescence could buffer the impact of early childhood BI and prevent anxiety disorders in early adulthood (Frenkel et al., 2015). Although this study of Frenkel and others
(2015) involves anxiety disorders in general, the study contributes to the knowledge of the effect from perceived support from friends on the levels of social anxiety specifically, because SAD is one of the most prevalent anxiety disorders (Silverman, Saavedra & Pina, 2001).
In another longitudinal study, Natsuaki and others (2013) studied the environmental effect of adoptive parents on the genetic risk for the development of socially anxious and inhibited behaviors in adopted children between 18 and 27 months of age. Adopted children whose biological mothers met de diagnostic criteria of SAD, showed more socially anxious and inhibited behaviors at 27 months if their adoptive parents were less supportive than children with more supportive adoptive parents. Although this study involves young children and the diagnosis of SAD cannot be present at this young age, the results suggest that support from caregivers could buffer the impact of BI on social anxiety behaviors.