Q1. Describe the information processing theory of how performers produce and control actions. Use a sporting example to support your answer.
The theory of information processing and computers grew at the same time base upon cognitive theory (McMorris, 2004). According to the Walford’s model of information processing, the information that exists in the environment known as input or display. Some of that information might relevant to the task and some might not (they are known as; relevant cues or irrelevant cues) (McMorris, 2004). Each individual interprets the information differently in their Central Nervous System (CNS) by avoiding the irrelevant cues and focusing on the relevant cues to the task; it occurs base upon the individual previous experiences with the help of Memory, whole the process is the role of perception (McMorris, 2004).
When Long-term Memory (LTM) sends the information from the past experiences to Short-term Memory (STM), then information compare between LTM and STM (McMorris, 2004). AS a result, the performer makes a decision about their action relevant to the task. Then, decision making happens and the both process attributed as a working memory (McMorris, 2004). The performer needs to deal with lots of information during performing the skills; such as visual cues, everything that they can be heard, also controlling their body movements (Utley, 2008). As it is impossible for the performer to deal with all the information at the same time, the performer only response to the information that is relevant to the task with the help of STM; this process known as selective attention (McMorris, 2004).
CNS is responsible for organising the movement based upon decision making by sending information to Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) (McMorris, 2004). The process of sending feedback starts as the individual begins to move to response to the task (McMorris, 2004). Feedback can help the performer to change or refine their movement (McMorris, 2004). There is a relationship between the reaction time (RT) and movement control (Utley, 2008). Some tasks require the fast movement, so the performer needs to make a quick decision and response to the task; as a result the movement control increases (Utley, 2008). This information process can be demonstrated by examining the movements of a goalkeeper: when a goalkeeper tries to save a penalty by analyzing relevant cues and the relevant pattern, they guess the direction of the ball. If suddenly the footballer changes the direction and shoots to the left instead of shooting to the right, the goalkeeper needs to change his reaction quickly and respond to the new information by controlling and correcting the action. However, at what point the footballer decides to change the direction of the shoot is important as it may be too late for the goalkeeper to process the new information and respond to the new cues.
Q2. Short term and Long term memory have a number of specific characteristics. Describe these characteristics and discuss how you would take account of two of these when coaching children.
Information stays in short-term sensory storage (STSS) for less than a second, so there is no enough time for processing the information there. As a result, STSS sends the important information to STM (Utley, 2008). Short-term memory (STM): has two characteristics: the first is that it has small storage for holding the information, with a maximum number of seven components. The information in STM remains for less than 60 s. Nevertheless, it is possible to improve this limitation by chunking the information (Cowan, 2015; Cox, 2011). It is usual to forget things and this is because that information had never been stored in the memory or has been lost. Coaches must think carefully while they are instructing by chunking information and considering how much information they are giving their new learners (Robinson, 2014). The second characteristic is forgetting things by being distracted (Utley, 2008). Attention is very important at this stage; while engaged in playing sports and performing a skill, the present information goes to STM, then moves to Long-term memory (LTM) (Utley, 2008).
LTM or our day to day memory has a large capacity with a long duration for saving information (Utley, 2008). LTM receives and stores what has been learnt from past experiences. Those experiences are then compared with the new one (Utley, 2008). Furthermore, the information remains in the LTM permanently; also more information can be added to the old information (Cox, 2011). Our LTM has two sections: declarative and perceptual. Declarative memory can help in remembering facts and events from our childhood and after. Moreover, it can help in decision making (Utley, 2008). Perceptual memory is an implicit memory that stores skills and procedures. Perceptual memory helps with remembering how to perform a skill. For example: how to play football or ride a bike (Utley, 2008).
The memory can only retain certain information, such as the first and last few words of a dictated piece of writing. These words would have been passed to the LTM because of their novelty value (Utley, 2008). So, while the coaches are instructing learners, they should make the information concise and demonstrate things by clarifying information and using proper cues (Utley, 2008), (Robinson, 2014). As it is more likely that new information will replace old information, it is better to put important facts at the start and the end of the instruction (Utley, 2008). For instance, the best way of coaching children is chunking the information and putting important information at the beginning and end of the instruction. Then the children can remember the information and by practising can store that information in LTM.
Q3. As learners practice they process though a series of motor learning stage. Though reference to Fitts and Posners’s (1967) model of Motor learning, describe these stages and the associated learner characteristics.
According to Fitts and Posner's model (1967) the motor learning has three stages: the first stage called Cognitive stage, the second stage called Associative or intermediate and the final stage is Autonomous (Utley, 2008).The cognitive stage is based upon visual control. At this stage, learner has no idea how to response to the task as everything is completely new (Schmidt & Wrisberg). Cognitive stage is the stage of vagueness, as the learner is unsure how to response to the task (Pool, 1991). Consequently, the movements are uncoordinated with lots of errors, because the learners become distracted by everything that happens around them (McMorris & Hale, 2006). Learners would benefit from being given both demonstrations and verbal instructions (Utley, 2008). However, the instructions do not need to be completely verbal (McMorris & Hale, 2006). Schmit and Wrisberg (2008) suggested that with the help of self- talk, learners would be able to remind themselves of instructions given previously. During this stage of learning, athletes are likely to improve a considerable amount (Utley, 2008). At the cognitive stage of learning demonstrations and instructions are very important and improvement is completely considerable (Utley, 2008).
At the associative stage (intermediate stage), the skills can become refine by the performer (Pool, 1991). The decision making improves and movement becomes more coordinated, also distractions decreases as a result of practice (McMorris & Hale, 2006). Consequently, movements become more efficient (Goodgold-Edwards &Cermak, 1989) and the learner less rely upon the feedback (Pool, 1991).Errors still take place but not as much as the cognitive stage (Utley, 2008). However, all are recognisable by the performer so that the action related to the task take place in the best time with spending less energy and less self-talk throughout the task. Consequently, the skills improve dramatically at this stage of learning (Utley, 2008). For instance: the cricketer by following the cues that receive from the environment would be able to correct the movements. Moreover, responding to the ball from any direction is possible, as the cricketer found out the correlation between the task and feet and body position (Utley, 2008).
The skills perform automatically at the autonomous stage of learning, with the minimum direct attention and less distraction from the cues in the environment (Utley, 2008). At the autonomous stage, any changes from the environment can be detected; also the cues can be predicted by the performer (Goodgold-Edwards &Cermak, 1989). Consequently, the performer is fully prepared to adapt the movements based on the detected errors. The learner can anticipate changes from the environment, as result, improvement in the skills increases (Utley, 2008). For instance, the cricketer is able to correct their errors automatically depends on the practice and instructions. Consequently, performing the skills is automatic and unconscious, with the less processing (Utley, 2008).
References:
Cox, R. H. (2011) Sport psychology: Concepts and applications. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
McMorris, T., & Hale, T. (2006). Coaching science: theory into practice, Chichester: Wiley.
McMorris, T. (2004). Acquisition and performance of sports skills, Chichester: John Wiley.
Robinson, P. E. (2014). Foundations of Sports Coaching, Oxon & New York: Routledge Ltd.
Schmidt, R. A., & Wrisberg, C. A. (2008). Motor learning and performance w/web study guide- 4th edithion: A situation-based learning approach. 4th edn. Champaign. IL: Human Kenetics Publishers.
Utley, A., & Astill, S. (2008). Motor control, learning and development, Oxon: Taylor & Francis Group.
Cowan, N. (2015). George Miller’s magical number of immediate memory in retrospect: Observations on the faltering progression of science. Journal; Peer Reviewed Journal, US: American Psychological Association.
Gggogold-Edwards, S. A., & Cermak, S. A. (1990). Integrating motor control and motor learning concepts with neuropsychological perspectives on apraxia and developmental dyspraxia. The Americanm Journal of occupational therapy.
Pool, L. J. (1991), Application of motor learning principles in occupational therapy. The American Journals od occupational therapy.