Matveev (2002) revealed that researchers usually use two types of investigation processes in their research; the first type is a quantitative research which uses numerical indicators to ascertain the relative size of a particular communication phenomenon. The second type of investigation process is a qualitative research, which uses different symbols and words to show the existence or absence of a scenario or categorize them into different types of scenario. Mary & Smith (1988) discussed that quantitative research involved counting and measuring of events and performing the statistical analysis of a body of numerical data. The assumption behind the positivist paradigm is that there is an objective truth existing in the world that can be measured and explained scientifically. Cassell and Symon (1994) argued that the main concerns of the quantitative paradigm are that measurement can be trusted, actual and generalizable in its definite prediction of cause and effect.
3.2 Research Methodology
Both quantitative and qualitative methodology has been utilized in this research. It was preferred because of the nature of this research and also for the novelty of the research topic in supply chain management where the consequent lack of study constructs (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Autry & Bobbitt, 2008). The method followed consists of three main phases: a literature review, data collection and analysis of empirical data.
To theorize in an inductive direction, the researcher begins with observing the empirical world and then reflecting on what is taking place by thinking in increasingly more abstract ways. The researcher then move towards theoretical concepts and propositions. The researcher begins with a general topic and a few vague ideas. Later it was refined and elaborated into more precise concepts when operating inductively. This research builds from empirical observations towards a more abstract thinking. In Duneier’s (1999) study of street vendors in New York City he used inductive theorizing. Duneier developed a theoretical understanding only during and after collected the empirical data. Duneier (1999) described the process as being like the method used by a medical professional who sees patients with many diverse symptoms. Only after analyzing the symptoms does the professional make a diagnosis or coherent story that explains the underlying reason for the many symptoms visible on the surface. Many researchers’ uses a specific type of inductive theorizing indentified as grounded theory. It involves formulating new theoretical ideas from the ground up instead of testing existing theoretical theory. Grounded theory is a widely used approach in qualitative research. It is not the only approach and it is not used by all qualitative researchers. Grounded theory is a qualitative research method that used a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived theory about a phenomenon (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Grounded theory allows the researcher to be scientific and creative at the same time, as long as the researcher follows the guidelines (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). If a research is carried out without referring to a theory, then the situation may be adrift as he attempts to design a study. Time may be wasted collecting unsuitable data, lack of precise ideas and fall into the trap of hazy and vague thinking. Organizing arguments, converging on research issues or generating a lucid account of the study for other people will be difficult. The reason for all these difficulties is simple. Theory frames how to investigate and think about a topic. It gives us a concept, provides basic assumptions, directs to us the important questions and suggests ways to make sense of the data. Theory helps to make connections and sees the broader significant of the findings.
3.3 Theoretical Framework
The dependent variable in this research is identified as trucking security control, which is the variable of primary interest. The theoretical research framework can be explained in Figure 3.1 with all the independent variables as follows:
i. Security certification
ii. Facility physical security control
iii. Security budget allocation
iv. Security administrative control
v. Transportation operational control
vi. Secured parking facilities
vii. Transportation operators
Figure 3.1 Theoretical Research Frame work
The less money or budget allocated for security means there will be less implementation of security control measures. The relationships among the variables are discussed to establish that the seven independent variables are related to the dependent variable. It is also discussed how the independent variable of security budget is related to the other two independent variables namely security certification and physical security control. The other two independent variables namely security administrative control and transportation operation control can be implemented without the allocation of security budget but these two variables will still be related in this research. Qualitative research variable such as secured parking facilities and transportation operators play a very important role in relation to cargo security. Survey is conducted along the highway and trunk road to identify the security control measures at rest area where truck will normally stop over or parked. Survey is conducted to identify the security related facilities at rest areas such as lighting condition, availability of guarding services and security control measures implemented at those areas. Interview has been conducted on the management staff of transportation companies in Malaysia to measure their perception on cargo crime in relation to crime displacement theory. The nature and direction of the relationship of each independent variable with the dependent variables will be discussed in detail.
Social scientists, criminologists and criminal justice researchers assume that the subject matter they study is probabilistic. It is believed that effects will most often occur when certain causes are present, but not in every single case. Social scientists viewed patterns, trends and relationships among groups and do not see these patterns to hold in each individual case or do not expect absolute determinism (Hagan, 2003). Researchers do attempt to estimate the probability of the predictions being accurate.
Figure 3.2: Data Collection and Analysis Flow Chart
The methodology used in this research is a combination of quantitative and qualitative approach where a confirmatory survey and interview on management staff of transportation companies in Malaysia is conducted. Flow chart in Figure 3.2 explained the research methodology applied in this research. Quantitative research requires it to reflect the concepts before gathering data. However, many of the concepts used are developed and refined during or after the process of data collection. Data re-examination is conducted to reflect the concepts simultaneously and interactively to generate new ideas. The new ideas provided the direction and suggested new ways to measure the data. In turn, the new ways to measure will shape how additional data will be collected. Credibility is substantiated with the use of several independent official statistical sources, a quantitative, comparative and geographically controlled survey. Primary source or data of the information are obtained via quantitative technique.
Questionnaire is used as survey instruments to elicit information from the respondents. The sub-set primary data is obtained via qualitative technique. Researcher administered questionnaires from 311 transportation companies in Peninsular Malaysia. These companies are foreign based companies operating in Malaysia and also local transportation companies. The information gathered from the respondents is being coded for analysis using SPSS software. Qualitative approach is being used as a complimentary alternative to quantitative approach. In-depth interviews were conducted with 31 respondents to gather more specific information from the management of the transportation companies. Guided question format was used during the interview process to ensure the consistency of the questions asked. Security survey is conducted at the rest area along the Malaysia highway and trunk roads to collect the data on secured parking facilities. Lighting survey has been conducted to confirm whether the rest area and parking areas are meeting the lighting standard of BS 5489-9:1996 Part 9 (Code of practice for lighting for urban centres and public amenity areas). Lighting measurement instrument is used to collect the reading and researcher has ensured the instrument is being calibrated prior to collecting the reading. Secondary data were also collected in this research. Secondary data included in this research are crime statistics from reliable source as the statistics cannot be provided by Royal Malaysia Police (compliance to Official Secret Act), Malaysia government or industries documents, university publications, journal and related organizations or NGO (non-governmental organization) reports or statistics.
3.3.1 Mixed Method Research (Quantitative and Qualitative)
There are times that one style of approach is probably the only appropriate manner to study the proposed ideas. Research focusing on the differences of the number of sales of a particular product within a time range will generally adopt quantitative technique; while a research focusing on the reasons behind those differences in sales within the time range will probably use a qualitative technique. When faced with the problem of generalizing and understanding ideas, it will be better to incorporate both approaches whenever possible. In this research, quantitative approach was first applied to gather appropriate facts to gain general understanding on cargo security in Malaysia. Following that, a qualitative approach is carried out so that there will be an in-depth understanding over the generalized facts. For research relating to new ideas, it is sometimes appropriate to use a qualitative approach first such as a case study or an observation in order to narrow down the focus of the research. The results from the qualitative research can then be the basis for the questionnaire’s development that leads to the quantitative research. In this research, the understanding of both paradigms helps to identify the ways these divergent approaches complement each other. There are lots of benefits gained by the application of both research worlds through the combination of quantitative and qualitative techniques. Another area where qualitative research can combine well with quantification is in running qualitative methods alongside quantification (Grosvenor, 1997). The respondents can complete questionnaires by themselves or it can be managed through interview session as there is an option to consider the interviews directly with a more open-ended qualitative interview. This will enable the researcher to focus on some of the responses provided and to ascertain the frames of reference within which the questions were being answered.
3.3.2 The Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative and Qualitative Research
There are many types of quantitative and qualitative techniques available. Both approaches have their own strengths and weaknesses. One of the advantages of quantitative methods is that they can provide a wide coverage of the range of situations. In addition, quantitative approach is fast and economical as a whole. This method is suitable when time and resources are limited. It will be more effective to use quantitative approach when statistics results are being stressed. However there are also disadvantages as well as this approach somewhat inflexible and artificial. It provides very little understanding towards the actions demonstrated by respondent and make it difficult to predict any changes in the future. To illustrate further, a quantitative research may be able to give a general idea on the relationship of job performance and managerial competencies but, it may fail in providing the details on how the relationship differs for every individuals and the reasons. Thus, it might not be very helpful in generating theories or understanding the issues thoroughly.
The weaknesses that arise from quantitative approach are most of the times the strengths of the qualitative approach. The latter has the ability to look at the change processes over time. By interviewing and observing people, the method provides a better understanding on people’s thought or ideas. The data, ideas and issues can be adjusted as they emerge due to good valuable information available and this will become a better instrument for researchers to generate theories at the end of the research. Moreover, by talking to and observing people, the process seems to happen naturally in its own environment rather than in an artificially created surrounding. However, qualitative method is by no means without its disadvantages as often the process involves in-depth interviews and observations, data collection which can take up a great deal of time and resources. It is then not suitable for research that requires limited time. The data compiled by this type of approach may also look very untidy because of the researcher’s lack of control on them. It is also impossible for researcher to maintain the same discussion when interviewing various individuals as humans often discuss unrelated things from time to time. As a result, the analysis and interpretation of the data will be very difficult. In this research the questions have been prepared before conducting the interview to ensure consistency but during the interview sessions, sometimes respondent tends to divert from the discussion topics. It was a good technique that the same set of questions has being used during the interview sessions.
3.4 Research Design and Preliminary Planning
In this stage the research limitation and the research questions that need to be addressed in the research is generated into questionnaire. It is important to decide whether the survey should; 1) test a hypothesis, 2) estimate the proportion of people or firms involved, or 3) study specific topics over time to see if changes occur. In this phase it is also important to make decisions about the population of interest. Profiling the respondents is also important to make trade-offs in the analysis and balance the answers between the groups of respondents. Another issue to be discussed is how well the sampling frame represents the population eligible for the analysis. It must be clear how the sample is framed, according to which factors the selection is made and finally what percentage of the population is missing and how it will bias the final results. Survey instruments often produce discrepancies or measurement errors between what they are measuring and the actual value of the variables to be measured. A way to keep the measurement errors at a minimum level is to enhance the validity and reliability of the survey instrument. Validity is the degree to which a measurement accurately represents what it is supposed to analyze (Hair, 2009).
3.4.1 Questionnaire in Quantitative Research
Questionnaires are usually formulated written set of questions where respondents record their answers and usually it is done within rather closely defined alternatives. Questionnaires are tools which are efficient or collection if the researcher knows exactly what is required and how to measure the variables of their interest or research areas. Researcher can administer the questionnaires personally, by postal mails or it can be distributed electronically and the researcher can use all the three techniques. As a consequence to enhance the validity of a questionnaire, it is important to improve the questionnaire design by emphasizing on the wording and format of the questions (Iarossi, 2006). According to Iarossi (2006); there are two basic rules which are very important to accomplish and they are relevance and accuracy. Relevance concerns the familiarity of the researcher with the topic and the objectives of the research. A question is accurate if the information is collected in a reliable and valid manner. A good questionnaire formed an integrated whole. Hence, to improve the accuracy of the answers, it is important to avoid asking questions that are difficult to understand, confusing or that refer to events or data too old to remember. The researcher weaves the questions together so as to make them flow smoothly. Introductory remarks and instructions are included for clarification and each variable is measured with one or more survey questions. Neuman (2011) illustrated that there are three principles for effective survey questions and they are:
i. Keep it clear,
ii. Keep it simple, and
iii. Keep the respondent’s perspective in mind
Good survey questions give the researcher valid and reliable measurement. This has also help researcher feel confident that the respondents understand the questions and that the answers are meaningful. Questionnaires are usually used in connection with many modes of observation in social research. The format of questionnaire is just as important as the nature and wording of the questions asked. Poorly laid out questionnaire can lead the respondents to miss some of the questions, confusing and respondent can also throw away the questionnaire. As a general rule, a questionnaire should be spread out and uncluttered. Rating scales have several response categories and are used to elicit responses with regards to the object, event, or person studied. Babbie (2011) discussed that in any questionnaire, rating can be used with various option such as:
vi) Dichotomous scale;
vii) Category scale;
viii) Likert scale;
ix) Numerical scale;
x) Semantic differential scale;
xi) Itemized rating scale;
xii) Fixed or Constant Sum Rating scale;
xiii) Stapel scale;
xiv) Graphic Rating scale and
xv) Concensus scale
In this research, the Likert scale of 10; a scale from 0 to 10 is used to elicit answers for the initiatives or security control measures implemented in organization that affects cargo security. Since any Likert scale measurement is concerned primarily with direction, utilization of a 10-point Likert scale is used in this research for more scope in the analysis of the data collected. Correlations of these data will reflect this fact because the basic monotone relationship has not been altered. The questionnaire is distributed to the people who are able to provide more accurate answers. Pre-tests have being performed in this research in order to enhance wording, format, grammas or language and also the overall accuracy of the survey (Groves, 2004; Czaja & Blair, 2005; Iarossi, 2006).
A well-formatted questionnaire makes it easier for the respondent to read and complete it; which is after all the key goals in using this survey instrument. The response rate will definitely when the respondent finds the survey easy to read and follow (Bradburn, Norman; Sudman, Seymour & Wansink, Brian; 2004). Additionally, a well-formatted survey will reduce the measurement error, as respondents will follow the flow of the survey closely thus unlikely to misread or overlook the questions (Dillman, 2000). Respondents’ needs should be the guiding priority when designing the questionnaire (Bradburn, Norman; Sudman, Seymour & Wansink, Brian; 2004).
To increase response rates, a survey needs to take advantage of why a person would respond to a survey i.e. their motivation. Dillman (2000) asserts that people’s motivation to respond in surveys is vested in the Social Exchange Theory and that is by responding to the survey the respondents will be compensated in return in a way that meets some of their needs (Dillman, 2000). Perhaps the survey provides respondents with an opportunity to voice their concerns and accept changes or the survey is a means of validating their participation or association with a group or endeavour. In this research individuals involved in logistics business are being encouraged to participate in the survey in order to assist the government in reducing cargo crime in Malaysia.
Thoughtful formatting of the questionnaire addresses respondent motivation by reducing the respondent’s apprehension in their involvement; performance on the survey and increasing their trust in the purpose of the survey (Dillman, 2000). For instance, the appropriate placement of instructions reduces the user’s apprehension about what they are supposed to do and allows them to focus on providing the information needed by the survey (Babbie, 2011). Similarly, elements of graphic design and layout, things that the user responds to but most likely not aware of, establish an order of user progress through the instrument (Dillman, 2000). While the body of the survey is critical to eliciting the information; our needs from the respondents and other elements of our survey are important in facilitating their response (Dillman, 2000; Bradburn, Norman, Sudman, Seymour, & Wansink, Brian, 2004): The following are the important elements of formatting the questionnaire:
• Cover page
• Directions
• Page design
• Ordering of questions
• Grouping of questions
• Order effects
• Navigational path
• Survey length
The purpose of the directions in survey is to clarify what the respondent needs to do at each point in the survey, starting with the researcher deadline and ending with what the respondent should do with the survey once the respondent have completed answering the questions. Dillman (2000) emphasis on instruction for the respondent, how to respond if they have further question or concerns about how to complete the survey and confidentiality issues to be included in the questionnaire (Dillman, 2000).
We need to be sure to position the directions where information’s are needed so that the respondent can focus on responding to the survey rather than trying to follow it (Dillman, 2000; Babbie, 2011). For instance, information about a deadline is provided at the beginning, while instructions on what to do after completing the survey was specified at the end, on the back cover of the questionnaire. In addition, the directions were specific to the part of the survey the respondent is working on. Special instructions within question numbers rather than as freestanding entities should be included as well (Dillman, 2000; Babbie, 2011; Bradburn, Norman; Sudman, Seymour & Wansink, Brian; 2004) for example, on explaining how respondents should answer a set of questions using a Likert scale, the directions was provided within that question. Finally, appropriate language has been used in the instructions, based on target audience. Researchers have kept in mind too that it is better to be clear and over-instruct than leaving the respondents confused, and possibly not responding to the extent that they would not return the questionnaire.
3.4.2 Questionnaire Construction
Questionnaire is used in connection with modes of observational in this research. Barbie (2011) reiterated that Even though the structured questionnaires are used generally in survey research by it can also be used for experimental research or even field research and many other data collection. For this reason, the questionnaire construction can be an important practical skill for researchers. As a general rule, a questionnaire should be spread out and uncluttered. If a self-administered questionnaire is being designed, researchers may fear that the questionnaire will look too long; as a result they tried to squeeze several questions onto a single line, abbreviated the questions, and use as few pages as possible. These efforts are ill-advised and even dangerous. Putting more than one question on a line will cause some respondents to miss the second question altogether. Some respondents will misinterpret abbreviated questions. More generally, respondents who find they have spent considerable time on the first page of what seemed a short questionnaire will be more demoralized than respondents who quickly complete the first several pages of what initially seemed a rather long form. Moreover, the latter will have made fewer errors and will not have been forced to reread confusing, abbreviated questions as well as being forced to write a long answer in a tiny space. A researcher has been very cautious on the construction of questionnaire and all these points are taken into consideration during the construction of questionnaire.
The order in which questionnaire items are presented can also affect responses. The appearance of one question can impact the answers given to later ones and the impact of item order is not uniform among respondents. When J. Edwin Benton and John Daly (1991) conducted a local government survey, they found that the less educated respondents were more influenced by the order of questionnaire items than those with more education. Some researchers attempt to overcome this effect by randomizing the order of items. This effort is usually futile. In the first place, a randomized set of items will probably strike respondents as chaotic and worthless. The random order also makes answering more difficult because respondents must continually switch their attention from one topic to another. Finally even a randomized ordering of items will have the effect except that researchers will have no control over the effect. Every questionnaire, whether it is to be completed by respondents or administered by researchers, should contain clear instructions and introductory comments where appropriate. Short introduction is being included in the questionnaire as this will helps the respondents make sense of the questionnaire. It will make the questionnaire seem less chaotic, especially when it taps a variety of data and help put the respondent in the proper frame of mind for answering the questions.
No matter how carefully researchers design a data-collection instrument such as a questionnaire; there is always the possibility and indeed the certainty of error. There will always be some mistakes: an ambiguous question, one that people cannot answer, or some other violation of the rules. The best protection against such errors is to pre-test the questionnaire in full. To minimize these problems, the questionnaire needs to be sent to experienced security practitioners for their review. The process is defined as subject matter expert review as discussed below. Stanley Presser and Johnny Blair (1994) described several different pre-testing strategies and report on the effectiveness of each. They also provide data on the cost of the various methods. Paul Beatty and Gordon Willis (2007) offered a useful review of “cognitive interviewing”. In this case, the pre-testing of questionnaire makes respondents comment on the questionnaire itself in a way that will help the researcher to be aware whether the questions are communicating effectively and collecting the information sought.
The contents of the questionnaire are the information related to security control measures within supply chain security and they are being used as reference. The information is being retrieved from various directives, best practices, technical reports, legislation requirements, audit criteria and the following documents referred:
• Directive 2003/59/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council dated 15th July 2003 on the initial qualification and periodic training of drivers of certain road vehicles for the carriage of goods or passengers;
• Directive 2010/40/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council dated 7th July 2010 on the framework for deployment of Intelligent Transport Systems in the field of road transport and for interfaces with other modes of transport;
• Council Regulation (EEC) No. 3821/85 dated 20th December 1985 on recording equipment in road transport;
• US Department of Transportation Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration: Intelligent Transportation Systems and Truck Parking (2005) Technical report number FMCSA-RT-05-001;
• TAPA EMEA – Secured Parking guidelines;
• ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) Annex 17 – Security Manual for Safeguarding Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference (Doc 8973 – Restricted);
• International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code;
• Singapore Secured Trade Partnership (STP) programs;
• US Custom Trade Partnership against Terrorism (CTPAT) Minimum Security Criteria;
• Technology Asset Protection Association (TAPA) FSR (Freight Security Requirements) audit criteria;
• Technology Asset Protection Association (TAPA) TSR (Truck Security Requirements) audit criteria;
• American Trucking Associations (ATA) Certified Cargo Security Professional Resource Guidebook;
• US Cargo Security Law – Bill S.2459: To improve cargo security and for other purposes dated 27th March 2006 read during 109th Congress 2nd Session Senate of the United States;
• US Cargo Security Law – H.R. 4954 Safe Port Act dated 16th May 2006 read during 109th Congress 2nd Session Senate of the United States;
• World Custom Organization (WCO) Safe Framework of Standards (2007);
• Hong Kong Civil Aviation Department – Regulated Agent Regime (RAR) Security Programs;
• Malaysia Law – Ports (Privatization) Act 1990 (2006);
• Australia Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government: Office of Transport Security (OTS) Strategic Plan 2007 – 2010 (2008);
• Highway Lighting, US UDOT 06C-06 Sept 26, 2011;
• Hampshire County Council, United Kingdom Street Lighting Policy Document 4th Edition, 2009;
• British Standard for Road Lighting – BS 5489 (1996);
• Province of Alberta, US: Highway Lighting Guide (2003);
• Illinois, US: Highway Lighting (2010).