Chapter -2
Review of Literature
2.1 Introduction
This chapter will appraise the connected fiction offered on the problem under study according to designated subjects that are connected to the study. It finishes with a decision that high-lights the study breach. Emphasis is on career development in over-all, knowledge as a life-long course, career improvement, training, the connection among training and career advancement, difficulties to career improvement after training, motivation and the connection between career improvement and enthusiasm.
2.2 Career Planning and development process
Chart1.1: Career planning & Development process
Figure 2.1
1. Self-assessment i.e. knowing person’s needs and aspirations: It is essential to find out and communicate to every employee about the career planning, aspiration and career anchors. This is because many employees may not know about the career development.
2. Career skills assessment: The setup of the company, further plans and career goals of the employees are assessed to find the career opportunities available within it. For every position paths of career can be identified. It is essential to assess career requirement in terms of knowledge, skill, experience, etc.
3. Setting your career objective and career development plan: A method to identify consistency between person dreams and company career system is made to recognize and compare fixed area of match and mismatch for various class of employee.
4. Implement your plan: Another action plan & policies for dealing with match & mismatch are prepared and applied.
5. Get the most out of your career: One should always review periodically the career plan as it is helps to know if the plan is using effectively human resources by comparing employee objectives with that of job need. The review also helps the employees in knowing the direction in which the company is going, and any changes likely to make and the skills required to adjust to the changing need of the company.
2.3 Career Planning & Development stages
1. Exploration: almost all candidates who start working after college education start around mid-twenties. Many a time they are not sure about future prospects but take up a job in anticipation of rising higher up in the career graph later. From the point of view of organization, this stage is of no relevance because it happens prior to the employment. Some candidates who come from better economic background can wait and select a career of their choice under expert.
2. Guidance from parents and well-wishers. This career stage begins with the candidate getting the first job getting hold of the right job is not an easy task. Candidates are likely to commit mistakes and learn from their mistakes. Slowly and gradually they become responsible towards the job. Ambitious candidates will keep looking for more lucrative and challenging jobs elsewhere. This may either result in migration to another job or he will remain with the same job because of lack of opportunity.
3. Mid-Career stage this career stage represents fastest and gainful leap for competent employees who are commonly called “climbers”. There is continuous improvement in performance. On the other hand, employees who are unhappy and frustrated with the job, there is marked deterioration in their performance. In other to show their utility to the organization, employees must remain productive at this stage. Climbers must go on improving their own performance. Authority, responsibility, rewards and incentives are highest at this stage. Employees tend to settle down in their jobs and “job hopping” is not common.
4. Late-Career stage this career stage is pleasant for the senior employees who like to survive on the past glory. There is no desire to improve performance and improve past records. Such employees enjoy playing the role of elder statesperson. They are expected to train younger employees and earn respect from them.
5. Decline stage this career stage represents the completion of one’s career usually culminating into retirement. After decades of hard work, such employees have to retire. Employees who were climbers and achievers will find it hard to compromise with the reality. Others may think of life after retirement.
2.4 Despite planning the career, employees face certain career problems. They are:
1 .Dual Career Families:-With the increase in career orientation among women, number of female employees is on increase. With this, the dual career families have also been on increase. Consequently, one of those family members might face the problem of transfer. This has become a complicated problem to organizations. Consequently other employees may be at disadvantage.
2. Low ceiling careers:-Some careers do not have scope for much advancement. Employees cannot get promotions despite their career plans and development in such jobs.
3. Declining Career Opportunities:-Career opportunities for certain categories reach the declining stage due to the influence of the technological or economic factors. Solution for such problem is career shift.
4. Downsizing and careers:-Business process reengineering, technological changes and business environmental factors force the business firms to restructure the organizations by and downsizing. Downsizing activities result in fixing some employees, and degrading some other employees.
5. Career planning can become a reality when opportunities for vertical mobility are available. Therefore, it is not suitable for a very small organization.
6. Others:-Several other problems hamper career planning. These include lack of an integrated human resources policy, lack of a rational wage structure, absence of adequate opposition of trade unions, lack of a good performance reporting system, ineffective attitudinal surveys, etc.
2.5 Benefits to Employees
The new skill and ability is developed during career advancement after training. At the same time job satisfaction is also increased among the employees as they get complex and challenging work, greater kind of variety etc. This allows the employees to see their movement i.e. laterally or may be vertically in the company. As a result the employees can know the degree of influence and can control direction of their career and also can find out and plan their development action. Also one can argue that career advancement allows feasibility for the company to have well motivated people and these results in improving the skill of managers to make action plan for making correct decision in placing important position. There is increase in the morality of the employees by sensing their development and making them feel valued. It is seen in todays’ scenario that many companies make arrangement from external recruitments agency to get the best staff for the desired job. Armstrong (2001) had agreed to this and said that the staff will get motivated once their needs are satisfied taking into consideration the action that allows achieving goal and a reward. He further said that the company must give the framework that will help increase the level of motivation with the help of incentive and reward and also with work satisfaction and opportunity to learn and grow. The role of manager in motivation of employees for performing should not be overemphasized. Nomura Research Institute Ltd (2005) told that reward plays vital role in staff acquiring and in retaining. Baguma and Rwabwera agree to the point that promotion is essential for an employee to feel job satisfaction and at the same time increase in incentive also contributes towards increased performance of the employee. Nomura Research Institute Ltd (2005) also agrees to the point that career advancement with rewards is good system for motivating employees at the work place. Hence one can logically say that there can be negative impact towards motivation, morality, performance and job satisfaction in cases where the employee feels that their expectations are not fulfilled. In fact in the study, Nomura Research Institute Ltd (2005) came out with point that young employees become uninterested when they come to know that there is minor chance of growth in their career.
2.6 Career Development program
The career development system consists of various elements for use in the company. For increasing the efficiency of this program, the Human Resource supervisors or mangers should possess expert knowledge of this tools as they are basically giving consultation to employees when they use this program. At the same time they have to design and develop a good career development program for the company. For achieving more efficiency, many companies should select the correct combinations of both types of tools or activities. For us to understand this tools or activities in better manner let us learn in detail about it:
Self Assessment Tool:- The first technique used widely by the companies in order to boom the career management in relation to their employees. This is the tool where the employees do their self-assessing exercise which will help in career exploration and put the information on their skill, interests, competency, work attitude, long & short term goal and obstacle & growth opportunity. This full exercise will help them in understanding their own dreams with their likes & dislikes. (Garry Dessler).
Career Planning Workshop: The employee completes the self-assessing, and then they have to share their thoughts and findings with their colleagues and their managers or supervisors in career planning workshop. This interaction allows the employees to get feedback from each other and come to know the truth of their action plan and dreams. This results in change of plans if it is found that it sounds unrealistic and accordingly changes the direction.
Individual Counselling: This is very common activity that is done by majority of people making company. The persons required for counselling is made available by a specialist in career development, Human Resource specialist and life skill development trainer. Few companies hire them from outside but few companies their own department in which they hire employees and trainers who work full-time. As a result the employees understand their goal and make changes, if required in them and thus works on improving their skill.
Organizational Assessment Program: Organizational assessment program consists of elements and methods for assessing employees’ capability for growing in the company. Johnson & Johnson is one such example of a company that makes use of such programs to evaluate their employees’ career and assess their capability to help the staffing and development of special team called as tiger team. The special team formed helps in speeding the development of newly launched product. To name few popular program under this item are psychological testing, 360 degree appraisal, succession planning etc.
Developmental Program: The developmental program is mainly used by the company to make their employees fit for higher position. It can be internal or external & is performed under the knowledge of HR staff/ trainer and sometimes outside specialists. To name few popular program under this category are job-rotation program, tuition refund plan, internal training programs, external training seminar & mentoring program.
There are many other elements other than mentioned of a career development system like career program for special target group, fast track or more capable employee, supervisor, senior level employee, technical employee, minorities and disable employees etc.
Various study showed that understanding of career path by employees has more job satisfaction, reduced stress, and easily adaptable to any change. A well planned career development program will help in knowing the strengths, weakness & values to all employees whether its’ newly joined employee or executive level. This will facilitate in recognizing the opportunity present themselves at crucial point in ones’ career.
Figure 2.2
One must always have an actively develop his or her career. Always keep in mind that career development is two way roads. The company needs to help their staff or employees through proper resources, proper training & development opportunity, and proper guidance. We can say your career is always ur career. It depends individual to individual whether he wants to be in 3, 5, or 10 years and then prepare plan to be there. Once the action is taken, you are to get the job for yourself that you love. This leads to more job satisfaction & lesser stress. One has to take action by today which reflects on the experience. Are ur career dreams in alignment with your current job experience? And comparing your dreams to ur dream jobs. If not, then identify methods to happen your goal.
2.7 Develop an Individual Development Plan (IDP) that is tied to your company’s mission.
Individual Development Plan helps you to prepare for the necessary steps that are needed to walk on the career path chosen. To be the most successful, your IDP should:
• Link your aims with the company’s necessities.it will be present yourself that you are the most important and devoted staff of your company.
• Concentrate on the present opportunity and the space you need to progress.
• Generate SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Actionable, Realistic & Time bound) by that you can extent the progress.
2.8 Set up career development conversations with your supervisor.
First you have to recognized the strategy, then explain all strategy towards your administrator with your aims and ideas. As per the study directed it will present that that 67% of reacted will helped by administrator by linking in staff progress. It will be happen that they personally refer you to one of their co-workers their profession benefits line up with your own. You should have to arrange seminar by this you may arise the question on your ability and capacity heights. You can pursue instruction on how you progress ahead and do implementations in your strategy. There is a discussion with your administrator, work out on your aims and take permission for demanded work out. To arrange constant discussions to inform him/her on your development.
To be fruitful, you have to be confirming that you will get the teaching what you need.
2.9 Find an adviser/counsellor
The counsellor can be internal or external the organisation and the bonding can be long lasting or short. If you have to be fruitful search an supervisor in the professional field you are interested in. At the same time clearly define goals so that both benefit from the relationship.
2.10 Career Planning and career management
Career development is a long term, ongoing investment. To be effective, it must be supported by managers and the company. However, employees must ultimately own the process. Creating a career development vision and strategy with a well-defined path will put you on the road to success.
Benefits of career development are equally for the employee himself and for the employer. If the purpose of organisation is to make profit than the best developed employees will produce the greatest profit. The matching between the organisation’s & individual needs and interests is significant importance because employees can give their best only when they are placed on the right job & provided with the right development and training but also supported with the best management .In unfavourable circumstances the stressed & unhappy employees will be less efficient than those who find the match between job, career & personal satisfaction. If the organisation denies development opportunities to its employees, it may benefits in the short run but later it will be overtaken by those which make the fullest use of their human resources .It is also important to be aware of the needs, abilities & preferences of the other side. People change in time, they learn more, become aware of new the things that have never been aware before, they have new connections, improve the abilities and skills, different wishes and opportunities, but also as the time go on, and they acquire different needs. On the other hand it is important to born in mind that organisations themselves are not constant .They also change in a way that requires different organisations structure, change in the hierarchical level and chain of command. Parallel with the changes in environment, organisations create new departments and require educated and skilled professionals for the new jobs and tasks. So, taken all these inti consideration, it is clear that organisation and individuals live and work in a turbulent and changing environment, and requires specialists who will help them match their needs and avoid certain discrepancies. If the matching process works well the organisation and the individual will benefit. The organisation may experience an increased productivity, higher organisations commitments and long range effectiveness, and the employee may have higher satisfaction, security & personal development. Matching the needs stated above is the process of career development supported by its particular segments, like career planning and career management which will be described in more details in hereafter.
Every individual understands the term of career as well as the process of career development in his own way. Career development has an individual & organisational aspect. It is the process of many correlated & harmonised individuals and organisations activities, where individual & organisation are received as partners in promoting & developing the individual career.
Besides proper and quality matching between the organisations & individuals interests and needs, flexibility can be described as another precondition of the successful career development. Flexibility in this term would include changes & discoveries of new markets, involvement in new products services, creation of new departments, changes and different types of employees with new skills, knowledge and attributes. All can this provide an individual with better conditions for career development, because as it was said before no one today can be safe & secure that he will working the same position & in the same organisation for the whole of his life. In order to help its own employees to develop their career & to make their own profit out of it, organisations should employ those with a potential for further development. Also they should provide those jobs & tasks that offer challenge & possibilities to improve personal skills & abilities to award them for good individual & team success, but also provide them with the possibilities for constant professional improvement through the further educational processes in order to keep step with the contemporary cognitions. This also constitutes a base for planning the future needs& further development for an individual as well as for an organisation.
Career & successful career development are supposed to be in tight correlation with satisfaction .On the other hand it does not always have to be so, since the successful career development constitutes for certain satisfaction in professional life but not necessarily in personal life too. Coordinating this two parts i.e. personal & professional life can be very difficult especially if one wants to make both of them successful. Developing career is sometimes require neglecting of the personal life & family because career development could demand complete involvement in job. There can be a question who is more satisfied & successful that person who has great success in professional life but not in his personal life or vice versa? This could be an interesting topic for some other research so it is just mentioned here without any details & involvement in this project. At the end it must be added that in spite of the all mentioned there is they great number of those who show respective in both fields the male & female.
Career development can be described as a term that has an internal focus & refers to the way an individual views his career but it is not an external focus that refer to the series of jobs & positions held by an individual. Understanding career development in an organisation requires an examination of two processes –how individuals plan & implement their own career goals, & how organisation design & implement their career development programs.
Career affects both actors in the process of career development an individual & an organisation and it creates relationship between them. So career development is a complex subject fragmented in 2 important factors. These factors are –career planning which represented the process through which employees identify & implement steps to attain career goals, and career management as the other factor which represented the process through which organisations select, assign and develop employees to provide themselves with a pool of qualified people to meet their future needs.
The process of matching is important because both the individual & the organisation have their interests in the individuals career .Discussing individual interests, abilities, desires, needs, choices or constrains, it considers career planning, which is an individual . (Mullins, 2005)
Figure 2.3
2.11 Stages in Career Development
In today’s world it is very frequent that we see a person changing his career. It is important to know the six stages of career development. As per the experts it is said that person change their career 5 times in his life. Hence career development is an important life skill which should be developed. The six stages of the Career Development Process in modern days:
Stage I Assessment
Stage II Investigation
Stage III Preparation
Stage IV Commitment
Stage V Retention
Stage VI Transition
Stage I: In the Assessment Stage, the person is getting ready for the work of his life. This stage is featured by unawareness, in which a person is not sure about his values, strengths, and weaknesses. It is like one wants to know more about oneself and make a conscious try to actually know who he is from inside out. The key features of this stage is taking channel of assessment and working with coach that can help built career.
Stage II: In the Investigation Stage, a person is looking for the different work available in the universe. This stage is featured by lots of confusion, in which a person is confused about his career. He is not sure what career options are open for him. A person overcome with all the different jobs and opportunities that is open for him as he begins to search the modern scenario work. In this stage if the mind frame of the person is positive, then it will be benefited for him in many ways. The key features in this stage are doing research work available in the world and personally interviewing the persons in the work field.
Stage III: In the Preparation Stage, the person is getting ready for the work of his life. This stage is featured by feelings of thrill, as the person think of performing meaningful work. However, there is much work still to be finished, and if he wants to be successful, then the person have to be prepared for all the scenarios that come in the way. The key features are to get the knowledge and the work experience along with making career goals and acquiring positive mind set.
Stage IV: In the Commitment Stage, a person is filled with positive mind set and is able to figure out what he wants to do. It may so happen that sometimes a person may be aware of what he wants to do, but may not be able to do it due to some or the other reason. At this stage, the person has to concentrate on his target and goals set. The key features are performing job search and accepting a job offer with negotiations, if any.
Stage V: In the Retention Stage, the person is more comfortable in his career field, as he has figured out on how things are working in the company. Here the person is required to be committed in his career by updating his skills and standards as per the requirement of the market scenario. The key features are providing good customer service skills and making a strong professional network.
Stage VI: The Transition Stage is featured by suspicion of discomfort, in which the
person is not sure whether he is happy or not and what he will be doing next. In this stage, the person is in the position to make mindful changes in his career direction. The key features are doing changes in the career and developing flexibility.
We can say that the person have to enter and re-enter through these six stages many a times though out his life. (Michelle L. Casto)
2.12 Related Studies
As per the research done by Warr and Bunce, 2005 regarding the career planning and development in the MNCs, it revealed the nature of career planning program and the expenses involved in the career planning and development program in the MNCs companies. He took the data of more than 300 MNCs to find out the average amount spent on the career development program. It is seen that MNCs invest a good amount of money on the career development program. It is also observed that many career development programs were externally conducted and many employees attend the program.
With reference to the survey of Neuman,2001, research was conducted to know the effectiveness of the program. The motive behind the research was to specify which features the career development program for managers and other employees. The researcher undertook the research of electric power transmission industry. Through questionnaire the researcher gathered the data on the employees reaction on the program. With the help of data collected analysis was made through statistical tool to measure the various factors that influence the employees. It was concluded that career development program was going in right direction and requires more time. The material should be changed and methods to be implemented for solving problem.
As per the survey conducted by Gaston and Kirk Patrick, 2009 the topic selected was management development and training in the police force in the UK regarding the promotion process. The data of 150 policemen was selected who got promotion from constables to sergeant rank. The research was conducted with the help of questionnaire. The respondents gave the suggestion on improving the upcoming programs.
It is observed that more importance is given to career development programs in all companies. These programs are helpful in terms of improving the talents and skills of the employees. The benefits of the programs in all companies leads to improvement of job satisfaction and the morale of the employees. With proper career planning and development programs the employees get proper guidance in their career and progress in future.
2.13 Theoretical Basis for Career Development
Career Development Programs is essential as there are fluctuations in the workroom improvements in management philosophy, alterations in managerial classes and the growing difficulty of knowledge.
Work Force Changes: In the past, personnel used to prefer working in 1 to 2 companies throughout their career which imitates there honesty for the company. (Lewis, 1986, p. 16). It is noted that the employees who have started to work in the year 1990, shows that they work for 5 different company and have 10 different jobs by the time they retire. (Scheele, 1992, p. 16). One cannot say that employees are not loyal to the company, however at the same time they might have various faith and commitment towards their profession, family, and there personal things. Many factors have resulted in companies going for re-evaluation and assessing their employees which is most valued and important resource. Natures of Employees Motivations: We can say that majority of the employees are well motivated, but at the same time the companies should also realize that every employee should be motivated by different sets of need. When the companies are able to understand and meet the needs of the employees it can expect high level of job satisfaction and increase in performance from its’ employees. During the year 1940's, a scientist named, Abraham Maslow (1954), created a general theory of motivations. Maslow found that employees have various needs which he summed up into five different categories. These categories were filtered keeping in mind its importance, from the most basic need (physiological) ascending to most complicated need (self-actualization). These five groups are well known as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
Maslow's believed that one's wants must be gratified at one level beforehand climbing to the next level. Maslow insisted that one could not practice some of these basic motives except more basic motives in one's career were first attained -Self- Actualization Esteem Affiliation Security Physiology such as making sufficient cash, being protected in one's occupation, and needing enjoyable associates with whom to associate. Equally, if one's wants go unhappy over a extended period of phase, the employee shall also leave their occupation or involve in some form of dysfunctional conduct. Maslow's crucial need, self-actualization, is defined in relation of one's wish to touch their probable and attain own fulfillment and development as an individual. We can say that, individual pursue to develop all they are skilled of becoming. Individual always wanted to understand their probable, development, fulfillment, and to touch a sense of achievement. According to McAfee and Champagne (1989), only few of the individuals touch a point of whole self-actualization. They also believed that any person can get better capability and become master in what they are exploiting. Additional motivational theory established by Clayton Aldefer (1972) called the ERG Theory, also organized people's needs in a pyramid. Aldefer incorporated Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs into 3 types; i.e., existence, relatedness and growth. Aldefer imagined the fewer each need level goes displeased, the more it will be preferred. Nevertheless, if the higher level need, which comprises the need for individual development, goes displeased, the person will become irritated and pursue lower level pleasure. This frustration-regression method is the main alteration amongst his and Maslow's motivational theories. There is one more motivational theory, Frederick Herzberg (1975) that facts out that while preservation issues such as salary and job safety can be allied with job gratification, the actual persuaders are the chance for development and gratitude and the chance to establish an advanced grade of capability in one's job. Lastly, Vroom's (1967) motivational theory resolves that peoples show the progressive level of motivation if they believe that their hard work will be remunerated and the rewards are of significance to everyone. It is significant that company recognize that alterations occur amongst persons & what motivates one employee might only affect another worker. Career development can offer a chance for employees to explain their different aims and recognize what different paths they can adopt within the company to touch their aims and receive appreciated prizes. If company can support workforces in filling their requirements, they are more possibility for them to be dedicated to the company and its aims.
Managerial Style: Change in managerial style has led to success of career development. Administration professors have been aware since long on the differences among Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y management styles. As per McGregor (1960), Theory X leaders accept that staffs hate their jobs, try to duck accountability, and want pressure & control over them to work towards company’s aim. The Theory Y leader trusts in the characteristic vision of staffs and accepts that they are usually involved in guiding their own effort. The Theory X leader was worried about output, instead of staffs' wants for participation. The Theory Y leader has out more stress on the human features of the work atmosphere.
As per Blake and Mouton (1978), the best active bosses are those who understand that employee promise and efficiency are straight related to the company's global usefulness.
Technology: Speedy variations in technology have changed all feature of the workshop. Improvements in technology have caused the requirement for expert specialists, and this has produced difficulties for various companies. Because of it, these companies are required to employ skilled technicians’ otherwise fill these spots with untaught employees. These technological developments also add pressure on significance of requiring a Career Development Program. Staffs would be able to create applied career choices created upon the company's present and upcoming requirements. Company will be at advantage by being able to use present employees to fill fresh spots.