As there exists a strong correlation between descriptive representation and substantive representation, many empirical studies have explored the assumption that an increased number of female legislators will increase the proportion of policies related to women’s interests. One such study, based in Belgium, measured the relationship between amount of female parliament members and the relevance of Lower House speeches to women’s priorities. Rather than falling into the trap of essentialism and using women’s interests as the tested variable, Celis studies substantive representation in terms of improvement and benefit to a disadvantageous situation affecting women. The Budget Debates of the Lower House of Belgium were chosen because they cover a wide political agenda and can be mapped over time. The findings of the study show that over the course of eighty years, not only does female descriptive representation increase, but women’s substantive representation increases at a proportional rate. It was shown that female representatives were more likely to act in the interest of their female constituents, and tended to advocate for policies that directly affected women, including equal pay for equal work, equal treatment in social security, and childcare. The results in Belgium confirmed both Phillips’ interest argument and Mansbridge’s argument of uncrystallized interests – the women members of Parliament were the most active representatives for women, tended to broaden the political agenda to include women’s interests, and adjusted their policies in ways that aligned with their female constituents’ specific interests. Measures to increase the amount of women in government must therefore be implemented in order to further facilitate the creation and inclusion of relevant policy, and encourage women to become involved in politics (Celis, 2008).
Mapping Symbolic Representation
Symbolic representation describes the ways in which the represented feels their representative stands for their ideals, and often largely affects citizen confidence in legislature, or political efficacy. Just as an image of the American flag evokes feelings of pride, liberty, and freedom, certain representatives invite and evoke certain attitudes and responses from their constituents. When citizens feel as though their interests are represented, they are more likely to participate in the political process and affect change.
Just as increased descriptive representation of women has implications for the increase in policy related to women, it also has hands in symbolic representation. With more women in politics, societies will be able to see women in positions of power, thereby changing their attitudes towards women’s capabilities. Measures of increased descriptive representation, such as formal elected quotas, have been shown to have strong impact on culture and on women’s involvement and interest in the political sphere. Through the public sphere has traditionally been seen as masculine, women have become more active and prominent within it and gained access to more political resources. Still, women experience much lower levels of civic and political engagement than men do, and this is likely due to the fact that political representation of women is lacking.
Studies of symbolic representation by Karp and Banducci have shown that there are two major factors that increase women’s level of engagement and confidence in the political sphere. The first of which is that women’s policy issues are more likely to reach the agenda if women are in positions of power. Women representatives in parliament are likely to advocate for issues that directly affect women, leading to female constituents having more confidence and belief in the political system. The second of which is the idea that an increased amount of women in politics will lead to the eradication of the cultural belief that politics is no longer a “man’s game.” (Karp and Banducci, 2008) The idea of politics as a male space was introduced by Karen Ross in her assessment of the gendered nature of political institutions. Because politics is largely seen as having a “male standard,” it is a less attractive space for women, as they don’t feel the political institution is able to properly represent them. (Ross, 2002) Once there are women in parliament, however, not only will young girls be able to witness and develop positive role models who are successful and empowered, but more women are likely to be civically engaged as well. In Burns’ study of political efficacy in relation to political representation of women, she estimates that even an increase of one female political figure is enough to close the gender gap in voting by at least half (Burns et al., 2001). Although this decrease in the political gender gap tends to vary across countries, Karp and Banducci find that the presence of women in parliament has a linear relation to confidence in government, and positive evaluations of the democratic process (Karp and Banducci, 2008).
Women are shown to feel better about government and have more confidence in the legitimacy of democracy when they are represented accurately and proportionately. However, if they are not, it leads to a lack of political efficacy, a concept that is highly tested in studies. Political efficacy, the belief that one is capable of making a legitimate difference in the political sphere and that one’s voice matters, is important – without this, an entire generation of women will be less likely to participate in the political process and affect national change. Beyond purely psychological political engagement (efficacy and interest), the presence of women in legislative bodies is also proven to affect women’s direct and active political participation. In this aspect, women are able to serve as role models in the most direct sense. The presence of women in positions of power empowers young girls to follow their footsteps – it shows them that they have the ability to become leaders, and that they can and should participate actively in politics. Studies by Campbell and Wolbrecht have examined two aspects of women’s political engagement in response to higher proportions of women in parliament; political discussion, and actually joining a political party and running for office. Discussion of politics is likely to increase among women when issues proposed are actually regarding their interests and wants. If the topics on the political agenda are irrelevant to their interests, it is unlikely that there will be a change in women’s political engagement. Similarly, seeing female politicians may encourage and empower women to run for parliament themselves, a consequence that is, arguably, one of the most important results of greater female representation (Campbell and Wolbrecht, 2006; 2007).
The impact of symbolic representation was shown through a case study of the Rwandan government, which has the highest proportion of female political leaders in the world. According to the World Bank, Rwanda has a higher proportion of women in parliament than men – there has been a sharp increase (from 17% women in government to 64% women in government, in just 26 years) due to the introduction of gender quotas (World Bank and Inter Parliamentary Union, 2016). The impact of women in Rwandan government goes beyond simple descriptive and substantive representation. Having a greater amount of women in parliament created a fundamental shift in Rwandan culture and in traditional gender roles. In a country which had recently struggled with genocide, it became important for women in even the most rural areas to speak their political views and have a say in government. Having more women in legislative bodies meant such a change was possible, and Rwanda saw a change in women’s economic autonomy, the amount of women speaking out about their issues, wants, and concerns, and the general level of respect for women (Burnet, 2011).
ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION
In order for there to be true parity in the political sphere, both men and women should be represented equally. In today’s political climate, most nations consider their constituents sovereign, meaning they are the source of political power and have the ability to make decisions through political processes. For this reason, women cannot be considered sovereign if they are not properly represented in political bodies, as they do not have the same decision-making abilities. If a political system neglects women’s participation, if it evades accountability for women’s rights, it fails half of its citizens. Currently, less than half of the world’s population is receiving proper political representation, and therefore, little say in governmental initiatives and legislation. Women need better representation in politics. Women’s representation should initially increase through formal representation, and political parties should implement methods such as electoral quotas in order to increase the mass of women in government. As all of Pitkin’s forms of representation relate to one another, an increase in formal representation will lead directly to an increase in descriptive representation, which will in turn lead to increased substantive and symbolic representation. In order for women to have a greater level of civic engagement, they must have more than just mere mass in parliamentary bodies – there is also a need for an increase in policies and legislation that affects women. In order for there to be true global gender equality, female political representation must increase in all aspects, and worldwide.